US Constitution of the United States Strengths and Flaws Politics Essay. In the late 18th century, the United States Constitution stood designed. As a foundation to build a stable governing structure for the 13 states that composed the United States around that time. These states were relatively different and consisted of predominantly rural and agrarian societies. Moreover, the same document regarded by these states as “the supreme law of the land”, serves the same purpose today as it did back in the day.
Here is the article to explain, the US Constitution of the United States Strengths and Flaws Politics Essay!
The 200-year-old Constitution of the United States is by far the oldest charter of government in the world. Faces a time of increasing urbanization and technological developments. Nonetheless, its effectiveness at guiding this nation and providing individual freedom, economic stability, economic growth, and social development has proven to be substantially enduring over the years.
The United States Constitution stands often referred to as a “living” constitution. Because of its adaptability to the emerging and ever-changing political and social views, needs, and demands of Americans. Moreover, its enduring nature in a world of continuous change has served as a role model for the evolution of numerous governmental institutions and their respective constitutions around the world. Its self-correcting and self-regulating nature made possible through amendments, the constitutional supremacy it embraces, the bill of rights, the separation of powers, and its simplicity of design is major strengths of the constitution.
The Constitution is a timeless document due to the adaptability of its nature. It stood designed so that it could amend as the needs of Americans changed over time. However, the founding fathers were well aware that amending the constitution should require significant complexity to avoid the approval and ratification of ill-conceived amendments. Moreover, they made sure that amending the constitution was in the best interest of the majority as opposed to a select few by putting into effect a dual process that Amendments must undergo to approve and ratify.
Essay Part 01;
Furthermore, amendments are subject to judicial review by the courts, a process that originated from the Marbury v. Madison case and allows the courts to review and revoke unconstitutional measures carried out by other branches of government. The Constitution’s supremacy draws the boundaries along which state governments and congress adopt and ratify legislation. Despite its supremacy, the Constitution is not entirely the absolute authority for it can amend by the people. Their participation in open elections aimed to provide political representation in the various structures of government.
Appointed and elected officials are subject to removal from office under the constitution. If convicted of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Which serves as an intensive to fulfill their constitutional duties. That is except for lifetime appointees of the supreme court and/ or federal judges. The reasoning behind such an exception is to eliminate the impact external influences often have on public officials. The establishment of a Bill of Rights in the Constitution serves as a means to protect the natural rights of the people. It stood composed of the first ten amendments added to the constitution. Which aimed to protect individual freedoms from the government.
Essay Part 02;
The first amendment is perhaps one of the most important since it addresses delicate issues. Such as the separation of church and state allowing for freedom of religion. Also, it establishes freedom of speech, press, the right to assembly, right to petition the government. And protects individuals not only from the government but from each other by restricting libel. Moreover, subsequent amendments address other issues such as the right to bear arms, search and seizures, prohibition of self-incrimination, the right to trial by jury and counsel, and reservation of powers to the state and people powers, among others. In addition, it has a significant influence on laws and policy-making under the principle “for the people and by the people”.
It is the Bill of Rights along with other factors that distinguish the United States from other less successful democracies around the world. The separation of powers among the three dominant structures of government is another strength of the Constitution. It allows for the overlap of authority among all government institutions and hinders the concentration of power in one of these institutions. Foremost, the Constitution’s simplicity of design outlines the government structures and designated functions. Yet, it does not specify how power is distributed among government institutions. Resulting in an ambiguity that has made it possible for the Constitution to successfully guide the United States in the desired direction.
Essay Part 03;
Nevertheless, both of these have been a source of conflict and harshly criticized for the broadness of the power allocated to the structures of government. As can appreciate, the United States Constitution stands deeply flawed. To the point where some of its strengths represent major threats to its original purpose put forth by the founding fathers. Although federalism is vital to avoid the concentration of power in a single structure of government. It blurs the concept of the separation of powers by providing the national government with sufficient protection to surpass the power allocated to states. For the time being there is not an easy approach to deal with this dilemma. However, it does not hinder to solve as to set it aside for another 200 hundred years.
Therefore, one of the first measures to deal with the problem in question is to narrowly draw the jurisdictional boundaries to define the power reserved for each structure of government, so that no structure has an unfair advantage over another. Such a measure should address the insufficient protection given to the states as compared to the national government. Another weakness of the United States Constitution is Congressional stagnation. The absence of term limits in Congress has proven to be an issue of high debate among politicians. It seems reasonable to argue that term limits in Congress would result in inexperienced individuals taking roles that have been adequately fulfilled by previous political officers and that the degree to which they represent their constituents, as well as their ability to do, is questionable.
Essay Part 04;
Nevertheless, it is crucial to point out that a large majority of incumbents, that is those currently in office, get reelected [INSERT STATS] to a point where most Congress representatives have rather established a career in Congress. Their reelection is primarily due to the low turnout of elections. Since the public is less involved in these elections as compared to presidential elections, name advertisements, and credit are obtained from the service provided to their constituents. Because elections take place every two years, reelection is the main drive for incumbents. Which includes obtaining name recognition among their constituents and service credit within their districts.
Incumbents aim to meet the interests and demands represented by the majority of constituents. Which has proven to be very problematic due to the emerging concerns regarding whether. They act as puppets to secure their seats or act in the faith of making a difference for their constituents by having their voices heard. Either way, incumbents enjoy unfair advantages over competitors. Since they allotted higher campaign funds than subsequent competitors, for instance through free mail. Additionally, due to the large sums necessary to fund a successful campaign and the diminished chances of the election. When running against incumbents, the number of candidates is inconsequential, limiting the choices of voters.
Essay Part 05;
Lastly, the long-term retention of office by legislators may result in corruption. Through the means of lobbyists seeking that legislators address their cause. Which may not be related to or benefit by any means the constituents that such legislator represents. The need to have checks and balances for Congress is evident. Which constitutes the reason why term limits should implement in Congress. The power to establish term limits is delegated to the states. And, the people and is further protected under the 10th amendment. Therefore, a state can propose an amendment by obtaining a two-thirds majority of state legislators to call for a constitutional convention. After which legislators must ratify the amendment with a three-fourths majority.
Similarly, the house and senate members can propose such an amendment. This is very unlikely to occur because the ratification of term limits will affect their interests. On similar grounds, the Electoral College has been harshly criticized. Since the purpose, it served 200 years ago view as rather outdated today. This election system is not only compelling in terms of its design. But also the extent to which it is representative of the popular vote in presidential elections. For instance, in the 2000 election featuring George W. Bush running against Albert Arnold Gore for the presidency, Al Gore won the popular vote. However, he did not win the election. Therefore, it is legitimate to question how accurately the outcomes of the Electoral College reflect the will of the people.
Essay Part 06;
Moreover, because the number of electoral votes allocated to states relies primarily on the number of district and house representatives of the states; it gives larger states the power to influence the outcome of presidential elections. Since larger states delegated such power, most presidential candidates focus. Their campaign and attention on the states with the most electoral votes. Therefore, smaller states have a disadvantage regarding their political involvement in presidential elections. And the value of their vote as compared to larger states and voter turnout can be further discouraged. The Electoral College can also result in a minority president being elected
It is not difficult to acknowledge that the removal of the Electoral College is by far the best strategy to solve the present situation. Nevertheless, the difficulty lies in designing a system that accurately represents the people. Some politicians argue that providing a representation of the electoral vote proportional to that of the popular vote would ease the problem at stake. However, it is very likely to raise new concerns; especially if both candidates running for office win 50% of the electoral vote; then a method for splitting the vote must address, which complicates the nature of the Electoral College; and defeats the initial purpose of correcting the flawed design of the such institution.
Essay Part 07
One way to do this without further complications is by establishing a direct vote system; in which all individuals have an equal say in presidential elections and are equally pursued by the candidates running for office. Please discuss the suitability of the Constitution as a governing document for the contemporary United States. What are the strengths of the Constitution? What are some of its weaknesses? Should we attempt to reform the Constitution? If so, why? If not, why not?
You should rely heavily on course materials, but feel free to use any outside material that will help your argument. Is it public officials or government officials? Our supreme court justices and federal judges public officials too as compared to senators and house members? Paragraph about the separation of powers. Am I making my point clear enough, since it’s rather a transition into the weaknesses? Purposely chose it. As can appreciate it…Is this contradicting somehow?
US Constitution of the United States Strengths and Flaws; Image by David Mark from Pixabay.
Internet of Medical Things Examples (IoMT) Meaning, Definition, Strengths, Weaknesses, Benefits, Challenges, Market in Medicine Healthcare; Given the fast pace of life, people no longer want to spend time on hospital registrations, procedures, and other trifles. The Internet of Medical Things can help it implement the Internet in the medical staff, patients can make appointments online; personal information and the first description of the disease can be sent to the hospital information system and appointed by the doctor; which reduces the waiting time and registration personal data. For people who live far from medical resources; remote medical care can be a great option to keep someone away from the distant conundrum. The internet can also be useful in hospitals; sending physical examination messages from doctors to specialists for patients with traffic disabilities. Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) can be very useful in our life and we need it.
Here is the article to explain; Internet of Medical Things Examples (IoMT) Meaning, Definition, Strengths, Weaknesses, Advantages, Benefits, Challenges, Market in Medicine Healthcare;
Information technology is central to the development of the Internet; and, the use of the Internet has also accelerated the development of the information industry. About half a century ago, the Internet for sending and receiving messages for military purposes appeared. After a few decades, the Internet can use by normal people in their lives, mainly to exchange information. When sensors become perfect, data science theory is more complete than ever, hardware humanize and economical; people can apply those things to what they really need, like the Internet of Things (IoT). Internet base on information technology, data acquisition can be done by sensors; and, data analysis control by programs generated by data science theory. People need the Internet of Medical Things examples, which is why it is growing rapidly.
Meaning and Definition of Internet of Medical Things (IoMT);
What is IoMT (Internet of Medical Things)? It is the practical application of IoT devices combined with MedTech tools in healthcare. With the ability to connect medical devices using network technology, healthcare professionals can monitor critical patient biometric data in real-time. This has several advantages, some of which are not obvious. Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) intends to implement the Internet in the medical industry; also applies to new Internet applications in health care; including the Internet as a carrier and technical means of health education, electronic medical records, requests for medical information, examples, disease risk assessment, online question and answer also Diseases, Electronic Prescription, Remote Counseling, Remote Medicine and Rehabilitation.
They can act as a butler for health, people can ask for something from the butler; communication between humans and machines; One machine can send something, usually data, to another machine; and, the other machine can respond to the communication between the machines. With IT increasing at an unprecedented pace, all types of industries have changed dramatically. The medical industry is one of the most influential industries.
The Internet of Medical Things can use in many ways:
health information requests, electronic medical records, electronic prescriptions, remote care and rehabilitation, and more. Once the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) fully establishes, patients won’t be spending a lot of time waiting for registration, taking pills, queuing for physical exams, being referred to other specialists, and more. Doctors can monitor the patient’s recovery situation via remote sensors, physical data can be sent back; and, doctors can adjust recovery plans based on the results of data analysis. And the patient does not need to go to the hospital for a physical examination again before the correction.
What are the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) and its effects?
One of the main benefits of IoT in healthcare is advances in medical instruments; and, data collection to improve patient care and data delivery. This type of medical advancement knows as the Medical Internet of Things or IoMT examples. It is a networked medical framework consisting of software applications, medical devices, and healthcare services and systems. IoT sensor networks can collect, consolidate, analyze and transmit health data to make healthcare delivery easier and faster.
Imagine an emergency medical situation where we don’t have this type of medical technology. How do patients get an MRI, get continuous glucose and blood pressure monitoring, and disseminate health information? The goal of IoMT is to reduce treatment costs, increase efficiency; and, deliver better outcomes for patients in the healthcare system. And as wireless capabilities and cloud computing performance increase; the healthcare industry is harnessing the potential of the Internet of Things technology for medical things through IoT devices examples.
How does IoMT affect healthcare providers, patients, and the industry itself?
For patients and medical professionals, these IoT devices will transform healthcare. They play an important role in monitoring, preventing, and supporting chronic disease – as the future of healthcare evolves. And with the emergence of IoT technology in many industries; IoMT differentiates itself from the technology ecosystem with a variety of sensor-based tools; such, as portable external medical devices for remote patient monitoring.
According to a Deloitte report, the rise of IoMT is due to its ability to generate, collect, analyze, and transfer; health data or images to internal servers or cloud storage. In essence, this connection between IoT devices and digital transformation simplifies medical workflow management; and, leads to general advances in inpatient care in hospitals and remote locations. Its accuracy and lower healthcare costs have proven informative; and, attractive for healthcare professionals to track disease and prevent chronic diseases; that can be vital in life or death situations.
IoMT (internet of medical things) benefits, advantages, and challenges with examples;
Before we dive into the current IoT trends in healthcare; let’s take a look at what these modern medical systems can bring and what challenges can arise in the process. That everything has advantages and disadvantages is not new to us; but, we see it as an opportunity for further research and tactical strategy. Think smart healthcare and smart hospitals. Continuous technological developments have given us the vision to increase the amount of data; wearables that enable greater collaboration between doctors and patients to ensure health; high-precision data that enables informed solutions, and connected IoMT devices so that information can access and share.
There are two areas or aspects where IoMT is very useful; one of which assists living solutions and chronic disease monitoring. These IoT devices can monitor patients and their activities from anywhere; then direct them to doctors or healthcare professionals for better outcomes for patients as well as treating more vulnerable groups. There is no denying that IoMT is not without its shortcomings when it comes to functionality; and, these challenges relate to technical, ethical, and legal aspects. And while we can’t meet these challenges, it’s time we can have more advanced and transformative IoMT applications.
Their challenges;
IoMT Healthcare solutions cannot consider for implementation without considering the following challenges:
Data overload and complex application accuracy.
Security, confidentiality, and security of data collected from patients and healthcare professionals.
A digital health infrastructure that combines data from multiple sources.
Data ownership of information generated and collected between a limited number of countries or devices.
Life before IoMT in healthcare;
According to the World Health Organization’s Traditional Medicine Strategy; traditional medicine is the basis of health care or will serve as a complement until at least 2023; meaning traditional medicine has been an important part of health care for thousands of years; and, will remain the same, until 2023. No matter how much medical technology has changed, the processes people use will remain the same.
The patient must go to the hospital and seek medical help. The doctor has to use a special method to check what’s going on in the patient; and, then administer therapy to the patient, maybe some pills and maybe some recovery training; and, the doctor may not be able to choose this point; so, the doctor turns the Doctor to another specialist to ask assistance; which means these patients have to wait a long time to understand what illness they have.
Communication between patient and doctor, doctor and doctor can be difficult to send and receive through traditional healthcare. Most of the time people split up to find something instead of finding an immediate; and, adequate solution after an effective search. But humans cannot avoid this until a new kind of information transformation emerges.
IoMT development in healthcare;
The rapid development of medical network activities has also become a hot spot for computer network technology used in medical applications. The development of network medical services can be further subdivided into online health advice; online remote advice, and online inquiries at three levels, depending on the type of classification. The first level is providing online health advice, providing medical and health advice and medical information services; answering questions such as seeking medical help, and promoting knowledge about health and disease prevention and treatment.
The second level is online remote counseling; which provides remote counseling, remote diagnosis, remote clinical counseling, imaging counseling, difficult case discussion, ECG counseling and monitoring, preoperative referral and emergency care, and other functions. The third level of online demand dedicate to the traditional part of the outpatient internet function; so, that patients can get medical diagnoses and advice via the internet to create green access channels.
Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) devices with examples in healthcare;
Network medicine, but can also describe as the era of network telemedicine. Mainly through telephone networks and cable television networks since the 1960s; including text images and videos, including all kinds of information for doctors to exchange information or expert advice to assistants in case of a diagnosis. In its development, telemedicine uses several new communication and electronic technologies; such as fax, telephone, radio communication for still images and interactive real-time television technology; as well as virtual reality and remote robots and combined with health technology.
The United States is one of the countries that has made advances in telemedicine; and, the earliest developed telemedicine systems use to perform non-invasive surveillance of astronauts and first aid to the sick and injured. Since then, medical institutions began to carry out telemedicine and gradually carried out remote consultation, remote consultation, remote transmission medical imagery, remote control operation, and other projects. Other countries such as Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and other countries in the development of telemedicine also attach great importance to investing large amounts of research and development in the field of telemedicine information technology.
Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) Strengths with their examples;
Portability;
With the help of the internet, all forms of records can transfer vis seconds. This information may be electronic scientific facts, physical test outcomes, electronic prescriptions, diagnostic reports, scientific reference invitations, private everyday health facts, etc. The affected person could make a registration at home thru an internet healthcare carrier to make an appointment with a health practitioner without watching for that lengthy; the physician can send the prescription to the medicine branch without a paper prescription taking through a nurse;
Automated tomography will no longer need an affected person or nurse to attend and select up however could digitalize and despatch to physician’s laptop right now with a preliminary scientific diagnosis document; patient can get their medicinal drug after leaving the physician’s workplace due to the fact the medical doctor may additionally have already despatched the prescription to medicine department and nurse have already taken capsules again.
Portability part 01;
Wearable detection gadgets may be small and portable. Many groups have released fitness management programs on a clever cellphone. PICOOK is well-known for its body fat scales that could measure weight and body fat through statistical numbers and report your body fat indicator, how a good deal you exceed, visceral fat index, how many calories are burnt thru basically metabolized, bone mass thru its own App. OMRON from Japan is an international-famous automation control and electronic gadget producer. Almost every family has a Blood Pressure Monitor from OMRON if there’s a hypertensive patient in this family.
People can test how many steps they take each day to be a hard health assessment index through programs at the mobile telephone or smartwatch, or connect them; so that customers can study the historical facts and make a curve to check their health plan.
Large Industry & Room for Growth;
The arrival of community health care is sure to sell the improvement of all walks of existence. The related clinical device could progress loads. A few years ago, a mercury sphygmomanometer is what everybody needs to examine blood strain, no matter in a hospital or a clinic. With the help of a stethoscope, the physician can tell human beings a hard wide variety of diastolic blood strain and systolic blood pressure. However, the essence of the mercury sphygmomanometer is a strain gauge. Therefore, what it offers isn’t always the correct price. What’s greater, a mercury sphygmomanometer must paintings with a stethoscope, which means that inconvenience. As a result, what people want promotes scientific device improvement.
Due to the need for portability and accuracy, a digital sphygmomanometer has come. An electronic sphygmomanometer can provide a tremendously distinct fee of diastolic blood stress and systolic blood stress; and, a few merchandise of blood pressure dimensions may connect with a phone or a computer; all records from this sphygmomanometer can despatch to this tool. Corresponding applications will help people analyze facts; and, inform you why you can see a changed result of your blood stress. If the person has some questions about the result, he/she can contact a specialist via the App. If the specialist tells that there may be something wrong and the consumer needs a complicated physical check; the person will receive a caution and might make an appointment thru the App with a specific health practitioner.
More things;
Internet packages are to be had for human beings to use. Ali cloud gives services for medical photograph diagnoses. Once the medical picture you have got uploaded to the cloud; the cloud will help you technique the first actual take a look at. Although this system can best guarantee 95% accuracy as a minimum; this primary technique can help increase scientific efficiency by using more than one doctor’s diagnosis concurrently. And, Ali has tried its quality to accumulate records analysis related experts thru many methods; high earnings to draw talents, retaining famous Tianchi Competition (inclusive of Repeat Buyers Prediction-Challenge the Baseline, Precise Positioning of User’s store with superior algorithms, Microblogging prediction contest, etc.). Not best Ali but internet headers like Google, IBM, Facebook all paintings tough wishing to steer the world net improvement.
Cloud computing needs to know as the most up-to-date enterprise in recent years. Everyone who knows a way to work with the cloud can get a pleasing process after commencement. Therefore, cloud maintainers, cloud architects, cloud huge records experts, cloud facts integration professionals, and anything associated with the cloud could be hot positions and more and more humans like this may wish.
Many Applications;
The very original reason for the Internet of Medical Things examples is for the ease of human beings’ lives, to resolve meaningless affairs through digitalizing the whole thing on paper, and to use large facts in the clinical enterprise.
Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) can handy humans’ lifestyles by using achieving a part of outpatient features through the internet. The affected person can make an appointment thru an online carrier by way of finishing registration at the health facility website. If the affected person desires any other doctor, this affected person can visit the brand new health practitioner without a reference or make an appointment again due to the fact these items may execute thru electronic mail by the electronic medical gadget.
The patient won’t want paper facts anymore; any doctor who has checked the affected person can use the internet to have electronic information of the same affected person; therefore, affected person and medical doctor received want to worry approximately losing records, and any doctor can evaluate the complete disorder records at any time with the permission of the affected person, and the affected person can ask for different doctor’s help with the primary health practitioner’s diagnose result as a reference.
Applications part 01;
Applying massive statistics inside the clinical enterprise is one of the finest achievements of IoMT. Through records mining, we can reap deeper cognition of the purpose of why an ailment happens to someone. The famous human genome venture can use facts mining to stumble on the secrets and techniques of the gene. For example, through the usage of affiliation policies, researchers can realize the potential relationship among genes of disease. After the take a look at the affected person with Alzheimer’s disorder, scientists can realize there is a potential causal relationship amongst a chain of genes.
For instance, while sufferers with Alzheimer’s disease all have gene A, gene B, gene C, and gene D. Gene A, B, C, D have the following characters: if A exists, B needs to exist; if B exists, C should exist; if C exits, D should go out. We may also the following bet: A is the motive why B, C, D exist. And if all sufferers with this sickness have A, B, C, D genes present in their gene, and those that don’t have this disease don’t have any of them, and, people with one of them, of them, three of them don’t have the sickness, we may additionally wager that the life of gene A, B, C, D collectively may additionally lead Alzheimer’s disorder.
Applications part 02;
What we get from statistics mining can not tell us something for certain; but, a few distinctive guesses and researchers can keep studying genes with such guesses as reference or route. When human beings recognize the relationships amongst a few genes for certain; they will flip to examine medicinal drugs that could prevent the very first gene to explicit, like A; so that B, C, D won’t appear and numbers of sufferers with Alzheimer’s disorder might lower. And Scientists also can parent out some remedies to prevent the expression of pathogenic genes like A, B, C, D; this means that even people have all of the pathogenic genes; but, those genes don’t express, therefore, the patient would not have the disease.
Applications part 03;
Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) can nonetheless help patients clear up remote fitness care issues. If a patient has a sickness, he has to visit the health facility to have therapy. The doctor will test the patient and provide him/her with a few instructions and therapy in line with the result of diagnosing, and with the patient is getting better, the physician may additionally need to alter the remedy. Therefore, in conventional healthcare, the patient needs to go to have a test so that the physician can regulate remedy.
If the affected person lives in a faraway location from the health facility, this patient will spend an awful lot of extra time on the road. With the help of the Internet of Medical Things, the body takes a look at can complete by way of advanced sensors and another portable medical system, and the patient can send statistics to the medical doctor ways far away from itself or even no longer want to try this due to the fact the medical doctor can get entry to the patient’s health facts database that links to every medical equipment with data.
Large Customer Base;
With the Internet of Medical Things, people gained experience hard going to see a physician. Excluding being virtually seriously injured, the general public could make minors injure themselves in step with directions of online seek. Minor illness won’t be a time-costing problem, drugs without prescription may discover online and inside the supermarket, special directions can receive through far-flung remedies. Above conveniences might welcome by way of most people. For the affected person, they will use the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) more because they need to understand better medical doctors, more advanced clinical sources, less complicated ways to cure the disease, a lower bill from healthcare, and greater insured remedy.
They’ll use the Internet of Medical Things greater due to the fact there are quite a few referenced cases to examine, more records to use, less difficult to schedule with patients, faster to change facts, more facts on the report to analyze and obtain therapy, more probabilities to assist extra human beings. For students, they will use the Internet of Medical Things extra due to the fact there are a whole lot of learning resources to have healthcare training, more ways to understand the scientific things around the sector, extra probabilities to serve in the clinical industry.
New Job for Experts in Medical Industry;
The development of they would create new positions. With the Internet of Medical Things, the range of outpatient docs will decrease, at the same time as unique records analysis professionals may be increasingly more wished. These specialists may not work in an actual hospital, now not work with a scalpel, not use a stethoscope, no function nuclear magnetic resonance gadgets; but, they paintings with computer systems, to get hold of medical records from the cloud, to take a look at what the information can tell; the shadow of a certain clinical picture would possibly imply that the proprietor of this photo has most cancers or tuberculosis.
Besides facts, experts read the scientific pix, and other experts wish for another branch. For example, in the branch of gynecology and obstetrics, pregnant ought to visit the hospital periodically to make sure that the entirety is OK for the baby, and at some stage in the sanatorium test time; the mother-to-be can use a clever mobile telephone with special and precise offerings for a mother as a fitness butler to help until infant born. Doctors and associated records professionals for the branch of gynecology and obstetrics may want to observe pregnant through the smart cellphone and transfer important statistics to the mother-to-be.
Patients can Communicate Online;
The constraints of time and space can break using the internet, the problem of communicating, too. Since the very first smartphone invented by way of Bell emerged inside the 1850s; the conversation has been able to go the gap. Humans might now not restrict by area. Via smartphone, sound can transfer to miles away to send some data. When the net first got here as demand for navy purposes, statistics transformation is underneath extremely secure conditions. Until after the Nineteen Nineties, the internet has become generally utilized by humans. After the discovery of the PC, tablet, the clever cell smartphone, smart bracelet, human beings can move into digital truth and communicate with different human beings anyplace and each time they need.
Therefore, humans with a particular purpose can use this manner to alternate their thoughts. People who like plants can talk a way to plant the rose in dry areas like St. Louis; folks that like to tour can percentage their enjoy from Japan to Germany; people who need healthcare also can submit their thoughts on the internet site or different ways to invite for help or assist other people. Patients can provide a few guidelines like “you could try and positioned your toes into warm water for over 30 minutes to help sleep” to reply to a few people’s insomnia troubles. The net assists human beings to enjoy healthcare.
Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) Weaknesses with their examples;
Battery Life;
Every sort of digital device wishes the strength to run. The portable facility relies on a battery as a strength supply. Therefore, the weak point of the battery turns into one of the weaknesses of the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT). The battery lifestyle is what we maximum subject approximately the weak point of the battery. Battery lifestyles are a degree of how well the battery plays and how long it could work with sure confidence. The most commonplace battery in our lifestyles is Lithium-Ion Battery; such as a battery on a cellular telephone, watch, pc, and other portable devices.
Therefore, how nice and the way long does battery work determines how properly and the way lengthy the portable devices work. With the development of the era, the battery can work under a cozy circuit so that the battery can continuously output a strong modern till the voltage drops to the minimal even there is some unstable contemporary. Even although, the ambient temperature at paintings, storage conditions whilst now not running, time to recharge, minimal voltage when recharging nevertheless restriction using Lithium-ion Battery.
This type of battery can essentially meet human beings’ everyday necessities besides while there may be extremely cold (<-20℃) or extremely hot (> 60℃), this is why battery energy drops speedily while humans using the telephone inside the north location outdoor in iciness. Lithium-ion Battery may recharge with specific present-day intensity; every sort of Lithium-ion Battery wishes exceptional enter contemporary, like iPhone and iPad, each recharge under the voltage of five V, whiles iPhone wishes 1A modern intensity and iPad desires 2.1A. As a result of the above, every device requires the corresponding adapter if people want the battery to paintings so long as it could.
Processing Power;
Hardware examples for the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) can be excellent. Applying ought to boom the capability of information computing, and cloud storage may be an amazing way to keep facts comfy. Using the cloud is the freshest tendency of net technology presently. As ways as it can tell, the cloud platforms may use internally by the organization and the associated programs of this corporation. Medical Big Data isn’t always a brand new idea. Premier, the U.S. Healthcare alliance network has scientific records to build a database for medical, economic, affected person treatment from over 2700 contributors, hospitals and health structures, 90,000 non-acute facilities, and 400,000 physicians.
Traditional medical records save in paper form, and personal records accumulate through the years. This information can not transfer into virtual facts to save within the cloud or someplace we want to use for statistics processing. What’s more, the modern information structure is difficult to utilize to dig. Even there are several virtual records, what can use isn’t so much, the maximum of what we’ve got can’t absolutely help. For example, to predict disease, physical indicators require and a number of the concurrent symptoms ought to record; however, no longer all symptoms will present, and it’s miles tough for human beings to make a judgment best thru some concurrent symptoms and variated signs.
Processing part 01;
The algorithm is a superb challenge. Although Alpha Go beats humans on Go, synthetic intelligence still wishes to move on for many years till it may without a doubt help people in health care. Ali cloud has published medical help by way of assisting scientific pix evaluation activity and provide faraway tracking via applications on a clever cellular phone. This type of medical help is to apply image classification via the cloud and test whether or not there’s a shadow indicating illness. In truth, the photograph class isn’t always so precise, with the very best accuracy of 92%.
It has to admit that ninety-two% is a truly appropriate variety at photograph class, but for scientific use, ninety-nine% continues to be not a great number, because there is nevertheless 1% of uncertainty. For human beings’ health, it’s far required 100% reality, even the physician make certain one patient has a disease; this physician can’t assure one hundred% fulfillment of the surgery. Therefore, the manner we use to investigate information cannot meet human beings’ actual necessities of medical things. There is still a long way to go for it;
Monitoring Liability;
There are lots of examples of clinical disputes when there’s no Internet of Medical Things. There may be greater disputes with the IoMT if there may be no enormously perfect felony gadget.
In the conventional medical gadget, once there’s scientific malpractice, all doctors, anesthetists, nurses; who associate with the case might require to touch their coverage agency and lawyers to ebook a courtroom with the attorney of the patient. Everything within the US can execute via attorneys as long as you’ve got offer coverage. However, the above things have to complete with complicated research and evaluation with the aid of the coverage agency.
While the Internet of Medical Things is coming, the whole lot is new to the sector. For example, if an affected person was under monitoring with the aid of a particular doctor with sure portable gadgets, and the statistics from these gadgets can be sent to platform A. All information of platform A will analyze using study institution B, and study institution B are from biomedical enterprise C. Suppose this affected person turned into sick and the physical check told that this affected person had significantly leukemia;
More Monitoring things;
However, the data from monitoring gadgets, facts evaluation result, and physician who’s answerable for this patient instructed nothing approximately it, which permit this patient leaves out the most efficient time to have a cure. If this patient desires to ask for something lower back, he turns to his lawyer. And his legal professional turns to the coverage company. Well, now that is the query: which part of examples the Internet of Medical Things needs to be responsible for this error if all of them should be, which one should take the largest payback.
There is no complicated criminal system for the internet, nor the even Internet of Medical Things. Who should be answerable for the screen, is a big query till the Internet of Medical Things accomplish.
Data Security;
When mentioned records accumulating, humans will worry about facts protection. Internet of Medical Things desires huge facts, examples, and these statistics are from human beings even they may be not sick. The information evaluation center calls for case records and control records as a useful resource to help classify and expect what kind of functions may additionally lead to disorder. Like the credit card, Personal data like call, gender, real-time vicinity, pulse, blood stress, or even sickness records may accrue from the bio-stamp.
These private facts may despatch returned to the facts middle through the wi-fi community, consequently, cybersecurity can be some other cause why human beings worry. No one can understand for positive how their non-public data will assist ailment prediction, because, of their minds, the statistics take a look at maybe like a darkish box, and nothing non-public and private can be visible but the associated statistics. What’s extra, the cloud platform is every other item to worry about. Cloud computing and cloud storage can lessen hardware strain.
More and greater businesses pick out the cloud as their commercial enterprise facts garage place and computing approach. However, even there are quite a few approaches to secure the cloud and increasingly more humans flip to examine a way to grow safety self-belief, there are still some folks who want to interrupt into the cloud and do little unlawful things. Fight among maintainers and breakers by no means prevent irrespective of what manner people pick out to use. Therefore, the cloud is not surely safe for human beings’ private facts.
Medical Industry;
When people do no longer want nurses to do registration jobs, physical exams, remedy assistant jobs anymore, people do no longer want such a lot of nurses anymore. Therefore, the number of nurses decreases due to this variation. And then, nurse schooling will develop slowly or even forestall. If every disorder can anticipate appropriately or can manage by using far-off tracking; the lifestyles of patients won’t motivate using this disease; the variety of docs waiting in hospitals for patients will drop slowly.
Because the Internet of Medical Things can help to reveal exercising, sickness-stopping, sickness diagnosis, getting better after surgical operation, because of this masses of jobs needed a doctor won’t need a health practitioner anymore. When physical checking can carry out with the aid of a few applications, humans do no longer need to go to hospitals to have a frame test, therefore, hospitals received’t want such a lot of superior medical facilities anymore. When human beings can therapy themselves at domestic without going to the sanatorium by way of themselves, the patient department gained’t need too many beds for patients except humans who have a critical disorder and they can’t treatment thru the Internet of Medical Things examples.
Uneasy for Elderly People;
The emerging generation may be each love and hate things for elderly people. They love its portability and convenience, however complicated operation prevents those human beings to easily use. New things are usually difficult for elderly human beings. These things may be fragile and have to use carefully. For instance, a clever cellphone may be genuinely useful for collecting records and analyzing physical reports every day. Some packages on the cellular phone have to turn on while using, and the file may be at every other place.
For elderly humans, they’ll have trouble locating the button to show on the checking function and go to every other web page to study the record. Some devices need to operate with lots of buttons, like an ECG monitor, the elderly can not do it without different people’s assist. Portability manner is small. Elderly human beings don’t have excellent points of interest because aging ends in presbyopia. Therefore, the aged need large ones. Being large and being transportable cannot exist collectively. Once the gadgets get bigger, they lost portability.
Internet of Medical Things Examples (IoMT) Market in Medicine Healthcare; Image by Mohamed Hassan from Pixabay.
What is a Monopoly? The word Monopolyis made of two words; MONO + POLY. Here “Mono” means one and “Poly” implies the seller, thereby the literal meaning of the word Monopoly is one seller or one producer. Thus, pure monopoly refers to that form of market organization wherein there is a single firm (or producer) producing a commodity for which there are no good or close substitutes. The monopolist is not bothered by the reaction of rival firms since it has no rival. So the demand curve faced by the monopoly firm is the same as the industry demand curve. So, what is the topic of the question we are going to discuss; What do you think of Monopoly? Understand the Monopoly on the Characteristics, Purpose, and Strength. Read in Hindi.
Here are explained about Monopoly: Understand the Monopoly on the Characteristics, Purpose, and Strength.
The market, form of monopoly is the opposite extreme from that perfect competition. It exists whenever an industry is in the hands of the single producer. In the case of perfect competition, there are so many individual producers that no one of them has any power over the market and an; one firm can increase or diminish its production without affecting the market price. A monopoly, on the other hand, has the power to influence the market price. By reducing its output, it can force the price up, and by increasing its output it can force the price down.
According to Watson,“A monopolist is the only producer of a product that has no close substitutes.” Changes in prices and outputs of other goods sold in the economy must leave the monopolist unaffected. Conversely, changes in the monopolist’s price and output must leave the other producers of the economy unaffected.
In the words of Salvatore,“Monopoly is the form of market organization in which there is a single firm selling a commodity for which there are no close substitutes.” The cross elasticity of demand with every other product is very low. This means that no other firms produce a similar product. Thus, the monopoly firm is itself an industry and the monopolist faces the industry demand curve. The demand curve for his product is, therefore, relatively stable and slopes downward to the right, given the tastes and incomes of his customers.
The Characteristics of Monopoly:
We may state the features or characteristics of monopoly as:
One Seller and a Large Number of Buyers:
The monopolist’s firm is the only firm; it is an industry. But the number of buyers is assumed to be large.
The difficulty of Entry of New Firms and Industry:
Firms – There are either natural or artificial restrictions on the entry of firms into the industry, even when the firm is making abnormal profits. Industry – Under monopoly, there is only one firm which constitutes the industry. Difference between firm and industry comes to an end. Since in monopoly there is a single firm producing the commodity, hence the difference between firm and industry vanishes automatically.
Barriers to the Entry:
The entry into the industry is completely barred or made impossible. If new firms are admitted into the industry, monopoly itself breaks down. This ban on entry may be legal, natural or institutional but it must essentially be there.
Price Maker:
Under monopoly, the monopolist has full control over the supply of the commodity. But due to a large number of buyers, the demand of any one buyer constitutes an infinitely small part of the total demand. Therefore, buyers have to pay the price fixed by the monopolist.
Price-Discrimination is Possible:
Under the conditions of monopoly, price-discrimination is possible. It implies that a monopolist can sell its product at different prices to different customers.
In short, monopoly depends basically on two factors:
Absences of close substitutes, and.
Restriction on the competition.
No Close Substitutes:
For the monopoly to exist single producer is the necessary condition but not a sufficient one. It is also essential that there should be no close substitute of the commodity in the market. This second condition would be even more difficult to fulfill than the first since there are few things for which there is no substitute. For instance, Usha is produced by a single firm alone but there are close substitutes of Usha fans that are available in the market in the form of Railfans, Khaitan Ashoka, Crompton, etc. Hence, though the firm producing Usha fans is single yet it cannot be termed a monopoly firm.
It is, therefore, essential for a monopoly to exist that there should be no close substitutes available in the market. This condition can be stated in other words as that the cross elasticity of demand for the output of the firm with respect to the price of every firm’s product is zero. There shall not be any close substitutes for the product sold by the monopolist. The cross elasticity of demand between the product of the monopolist and others must be negligible or zero.
Positive And Negative Purpose Of Monopoly:
Currently, in many countries around the world, the monopoly in the business still has debatement and it is applied in some fields. Therefore, there will be two exclusive aspects: positive and negative when applied in the business methods of a certain field. The main points lead to monopoly are Government concessions resources for a certain firm, the ownership of inventions, patents and intellectual property, ownership is a great resource.
Positive Purpose:
As a result, we can analyze the positive outlook base on Viet Nam Oil And Gas Group (Petrovietnam) – one of the most popular corporations in Viet Nam since 1985 till now. Petrovietnam has supposed as a powerful economic group in Vietnam, known in the region and the world. In this situation, the profits that Petrovietnam earns to provide funds that can be invested in equipment and development.
Whereas perfect competition must be accepted with a normal return on invested capital, the monopolist has more funds to undertake the development further. Importantly, the ability to achieve a monopoly position or to maintain it and step ahead of potential competitors, Petrovietnam has to do innovation in products, techniques and cost savings. They also may not need to spend more money on advertising, marketing, promotions, etc.
Negative Purpose:
Due to maximize revenue, the monopolist would produce goods which marginal sales equal marginal revenue instead of producing output level which prices higher than marginal cost as in the market (supply equals demand). Besides, different from perfect competition which price depends on the quantity of producing of a firm. Price of Petrovietnam would increase while decreasing the quantity of produce. For this reason, profit margins will be higher than selling price.
Besides, producing more oil products will make the enterprise gets more revenue and it also will be the higher selling price. Accordingly, sometimes Petrovietnam suddenly increases the price higher while the international market price was decreasing and the market did not change. Thus, people have to buy oil and gas at an expensive price because oil and gas are important in life. Although people complained, Petrovietnam still keeps the price high.
In this case, we can see easily that they misused the power of monopolist sometimes. In short, the monopolist will produce lower and price of selling goods is higher than the competitive market. In addition, society has to bear loss by increased output minus the marginal total cost to produce the output which should be produced more. It is the toll by the monopolist. In addition, lack of incentive to innovate also impact the demand and supply.
Measuring Monopoly Power (Strength):
Different measures that have been suggested are as follows:
By Concentration Ratio:
Concentration ratio refers to the fraction of total market sales controlled by the largest group of sellers. The inclusion of the market shares of several firms in the concentration ratio rests upon the possibility that large firms will adopt a common price- output policy which may not be very different from the one they would adopt if they were under unified management. But here the difficulty arises that they may not do so. Therefore, a high concentration ratio may be necessary for the exercise of monopoly power but it is not sufficient.
In an industry, usually there exist some smaller firms and some larger firms in the sense that smaller firms have relatively smaller shares in total industry sales (or profits or assets), and the larger firms have relatively larger shares. That is, sales (or profits or assets) may be more concentrated in a few firms of the industry, or such concentration may be less. Now, the size of the largest firms’ share in total industry sales, etc. is known as the concentration ratio.
For example, if we consider sales as the criterion, then the n largest firms’ share in total industry sales is called an n-firm concentration ratio which is denoted by CRn. Usually, the four-firm and eight-firm concentration ratios denoted by CR4 and CR8, are used as a measure of monopoly power.
The concentration ratio may act as a measure of monopoly power because, in a competitive industry, sales are more evenly distributed among firms—concentration of sales is more or less absent. On the other hand, in a monopolistic industry, sales tend to concentrate in a few large firms—in the limiting case, sales are concentrated in only one firm when we have the case of a pure monopoly.
By Profit-Rate:
J.S. Bain used profit-rate as a measure of monopoly power. By high profits, economists mean returns sufficiently in excess of all opportunity costs which potential new entrants desire for entering the industry. The size of super-normal profits which a firm is able to earn is an indication of its monopoly power. In perfect competition, a firm earns only normal profits. In a monopoly, new entrants will not normally compete away monopoly profits.
But there will be some level of profits at which new firms will find it worth taking the risk of trying to break the monopoly. The stronger the monopolist’s position, the greater the profits he will be able to earn without attracting new rivals. In short, it is said that neither concentration ratio nor profit-rate is ideal measures of the degree of monopoly power, both are of some value nor both are widely used.
By Lerner’s:
It is the oldest measure and is based on the difference between the price charged by the monopolist and his marginal cost. Bober gives the formula 1/E. Thus, the degree of monopoly power varies inversely with the elasticity of demand for the commodity.
However, the more commonly used formula is:
Degree of monopoly power = (P-MC) / P
Where P is the price charged by the monopolist and MC his marginal cost.
In perfect competition,
P = MC and the formula (P-MC)/P gives zero answers indicating no monopoly power. If the monopolized product is a free good, MC = 0 and the formula registers unity. The index of monopoly power thus varies from zero to unity. Since monopolized goods are seldom free, monopoly power is seldom as high as unity.
This method is not free from defects as:
Firstly it does not measure non-price competition. Secondly, monopoly power is shown itself not only in high price but also in output restriction. The output may be restricted by under-utilization of capacity already in existence or by restricting new entry.
Lerner’s method throws no light on these aspects of monopoly power.
Discover the true meaning of strength and its different aspects. Explore the physical, mental, and emotional dimensions of strength in this insightful blog post.
Definition of Strength?
“Strength is a power or value of Competition to others, strength is counting by numbers, group members, the value of quantity and quality of Strength.” Other Words – The quality or state of being physically strong. the influence or power possessed by a person, organization, or country. the degree of intensity of a feeling or belief. the potential of a hand to win tricks, arising from the number and type of high cards it contains.
The capacity of an object or substance to withstand great force or pressure. the emotional or mental qualities necessary in dealing with difficult or distressing situations. The potency or degree of concentration of a drug, chemical, or drink. A good or beneficial quality or attribute of a person or thing. a person or thing perceived as a source of mental or emotional support.
Capital, knowledge, skill, or another advantage that a firm has or can acquire over its competitors in meeting the needs of its customers. See also SWOT analysis.
Physical Strength
Physical-strength is the measure of an animal’s exertion of force on physical objects. Increasing physical strength is the goal of strength training.
An individual’s physical strength is determining two factors. The cross-sectional area of muscle fibers recruited to generate force and the intensity of the recruitment. Individuals with a high proportion of type I slow twitch muscle fibers will be relatively weaker than a similar individual. With a high proportion of type II fast twitch fibers but would have a greater inherent capacity for physical endurance. The genetic inheritance of muscle fiber type sets the outermost boundaries of physical strength possible (barring the use of enhancing agents such as testosterone). Though the unique position within this envelope is determining by training.
Individual muscle fiber ratios can determine through a muscle biopsy. Other considerations are the ability to recruit muscle fibers for a particular activity: joint angles, and the length of each limb. For a given cross-section, shorter limbs are able to lift more weight. The ability to gain muscle also varies person to person, based mainly upon genes dictating the amounts of hormones secreted. But also on sex, age, the health of the person, and adequate nutrients in the diet. A one-repetition maximum test is the most accurate way to determine maximum muscular strength.
Hysterical Strength
Hysterical-strength is a display of extreme strength by humans, beyond what is believing to normal, usually occurring when people are in life-and-death situations. Common anecdotal examples include parents lifting vehicles to rescue their children. The extra strength is commonly attributing to increasing adrenaline production, though supporting evidence is scarce, and inconclusive when available. Also, research into the phenomenon is difficult, though it is thought that it is theoretically possible.
The most crucial issue in test construction is validity. Whereas reliability addresses issues of consistency, validity assesses what the test is to be accurate about. A test that is valid for clinical assessment should measure what it is intended to measure and should also produce information useful to clinicians. A psychological test cannot be said to be valid in any abstract or absolute sense, but more practically, it must be valid in a particular context and for a specific group of people (Messick, 1995). Although a test can be reliable without being valid, the opposite is not true; a necessary prerequisite for validity is that the test must have achieved an adequate level of reliability. Thus, a valid test is one that accurately measures the variable it is intended to measure. For example, a test comprising questions about a person’s musical preference might erroneously state that it is a test of creativity. The test might be reliable in the sense that if it is given to the same person on different occasions, it produces similar results each time. However, it would not be reliable in that an investigation might indicate it does not correlate with other more valid measurements of creativity.
Establishing the validity of a test can be extremely difficult, primarily because psychological variables are usually abstract concepts such as intelligence, anxiety, and personality. These concepts have no tangible reality, so their existence must be inferred through indirect means. In addition, conceptualization and research on constructs undergo change over time requiring that test validation go through continual refinement (G. Smith & McCarthy, 1995). In constructing a test, a test designer must follow two necessary, initial steps. First, the construct must be theoretically evaluated and described; second, specific operations (test questions) must be developed to measure it (S. Haynes et al., 1995). Even when the designer has followed these steps closely and conscientiously, it is sometimes difficult to determine what the test really measures. For example, IQ tests are good predictors of academic success, but many researchers question whether they adequately measure the concept of intelligence as it is theoretically described. Another hypothetical test that, based on its item content, might seem to measure what is described as musical aptitude may in reality be highly correlated with verbal abilities. Thus, it may be more a measure of verbal abilities than of musical aptitude.
Any estimate of validity is concerned with relationships between the test and some external independently observed event. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council for Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999; G. Morgan, Gliner, & Harmon, 2001) list the three main methods of establishing validity as content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related.
Content Validity
During the initial construction phase of any test, the developers must first be concerned with its content validity. This refers to the representativeness and relevance of the assessment instrument to the construct being measured. During the initial item selection, the constructors must carefully consider the skills or knowledge area of the variable they would like to measure. The items are then generated based on this conceptualization of the variable. At some point, it might be decided that the item content over-represents, under-represents, or excludes specific areas, and alterations in the items might be made accordingly. If experts on subject matter are used to determine the items, the number of these experts and their qualifications should be included in the test manual. The instructions they received and the extent of agreement between judges should also be provided. A good test covers not only the subject matter being measured, but also additional variables. For example, factual knowledge may be one criterion, but the application of that knowledge and the ability to analyze data are also important. Thus, a test with high content validity must cover all major aspects of the content area and must do so in the correct proportion.
A concept somewhat related to content validity is face validity. These terms are not synonymous, however, because content validity pertains to judgments made by experts, whereas face validity concerns judgments made by the test users. The central issue in face validity is test rapport. Thus, a group of potential mechanics who are being tested for basic skills in arithmetic should have word problems that relate to machines rather than to business transactions. Face validity, then, is present if the test looks good to the persons taking it, to policymakers who decide to include it in their programs, and to other untrained personnel. Despite the potential importance of face validity in regard to test-taking attitudes, disappointingly few formal studies on face validity are performed and/or reported in test manuals.
In the past, content validity has been conceptualized and operationalized as being based on the subjective judgment of the test developers. As a result, it has been regarded as the least preferred form of test validation, albeit necessary in the initial stages of test development. In addition, its usefulness has been primarily focused at achievement tests (how well has this student learned the content of the course?) and personnel selection (does this applicant know the information relevant to the potential job?). More recently, it has become used more extensively in personality and clinical assessment (Butcher, Graham, Williams, & Ben-Porath, 1990; Millon, 1994). This has paralleled more rigorous and empirically based approaches to content validity along with a closer integration to criterion and construct validation.
Criterion Validity
A second major approach to determining validity is criterion validity, which has also been called empirical or predictive validity. Criterion validity is determined by comparing test scores with some sort of performance on an outside measure. The outside measure should have a theoretical relation to the variable that the test is supposed to measure. For example, an intelligence test might be correlated with grade point average; an aptitude test, with independent job ratings or general maladjustment scores, with other tests measuring similar dimensions. The relation between the two measurements is usually expressed as a correlation coefficient.
Criterion-related validity is most frequently divided into either concurrent or predictive validity. Concurrent validity refers to measurements taken at the same, or approximately the same, time as the test. For example, an intelligence test might be administered at the same time as assessments of a group’s level of academic achievement. Predictive validity refers to outside measurements that were taken some time after the test scores were derived. Thus, predictive validity might be evaluated by correlating the intelligence test scores with measures of academic achievement a year after the initial testing. Concurrent validation is often used as a substitute for predictive validation because it is simpler, less expensive, and not as time consuming. However, the main consideration in deciding whether concurrent or predictive validation is preferable depends on the test’s purpose. Predictive validity is most appropriate for tests used for selection and classification of personnel. This may include hiring job applicants, placing military personnel in specific occupational training programs, screening out individuals who are likely to develop emotional disorders, or identifying which category of psychiatric populations would be most likely to benefit from specific treatment approaches. These situations all require that the measurement device provide a prediction of some future outcome. In contrast, concurrent validation is preferable if an assessment of the client’s current status is required, rather than a prediction of what might occur to the client at some future time. The distinction can be summarized by asking “Is Mr. Jones maladjusted?” (concurrent validity) rather than “Is Mr. Jones likely to become maladjusted at some future time?” (predictive validity).
An important consideration is the degree to which a specific test can be applied to a unique work-related environment (see Hogan, Hogan, & Roberts, 1996). This relates more to the social value and consequences of the assessment than the formal validity as reported in the test manual (Messick, 1995). In other words, can the test under consideration provide accurate assessments and predictions for the environment in which the examinee is working? To answer this question adequately, the examiner must refer to the manual and assess the similarity between the criteria used to establish the test’s validity and the situation to which he or she would like to apply the test. For example, can an aptitude test that has adequate criterion validity in the prediction of high school grade point average also be used to predict academic achievement for a population of college students? If the examiner has questions regarding the relative applicability of the test, he or she may need to undertake a series of specific tasks. The first is to identify the required skills for adequate performance in the situation involved. For example, the criteria for a successful teacher may include such attributes as verbal fluency, flexibility, and good public speaking skills. The examiner then must determine the degree to which each skill contributes to the quality of a teacher’s performance. Next, the examiner has to assess the extent to which the test under consideration measures each of these skills. The final step is to evaluate the extent to which the attribute that the test measures are relevant to the skills the examiner needs to predict. Based on these evaluations, the examiner can estimate the confidence that he or she places in the predictions developed from the test. This approach is sometimes referred to as synthetic validity because examiners must integrate or synthesize the criteria reported in the test manual with the variables they encounter in their clinical or organizational settings.
The strength of criterion validity depends in part on the type of variable being measured. Usually, intellectual or aptitude tests give relatively higher validity coefficients than personality tests because there are generally a greater number of variables influencing personality than intelligence. As the number of variables that influences the trait being measured increases, it becomes progressively more difficult to account for them. When a large number of variables are not accounted for, the trait can be affected in unpredictable ways. This can create a much wider degree of fluctuation in the test scores, thereby lowering the validity coefficient. Thus, when evaluating a personality test, the examiner should not expect as high a validity coefficient as for intellectual or aptitude tests. A helpful guide is to look at the validities found in similar tests and compare them with the test being considered. For example, if an examiner wants to estimate the range of validity to be expected for the extra-version scale on the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, he or she might compare it with the validities for similar scales found in the California Personality Inventory and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The relative level of validity, then, depends both on the quality of the construction of the test and on the variable being studied.
An important consideration is the extent to which the test accounts for the trait being measured or the behavior being predicted. For example, the typical correlation between intelligence tests and academic performance is about .50 (Neisser et al., 1996). Because no one would say that grade point average is entirely the result of intelligence, the relative extent to which intelligence determines grade point average has to be estimated. This can be calculated by squaring the correlation coefficient and changing it into a percentage. Thus, if the correlation of .50 is squared, it comes out to 25%, indicating that 25% of academic achievement can be accounted for by IQ as measured by the intelligence test. The remaining 75% may include factors such as motivation, quality of instruction, and past educational experience. The problem facing the examiner is to determine whether 25% of the variance is sufficiently useful for the intended purposes of the test. This ultimately depends on the personal judgment of the examiner.
The main problem confronting criterion validity is finding an agreed-on, definable, acceptable, and feasible outside criterion. Whereas for an intelligence test the grade point average might be an acceptable criterion, it is far more difficult to identify adequate criteria for most personality tests. Even with so-called intelligence tests, many researchers argue that it is more appropriate to consider them tests of scholastic aptitude rather than of intelligence. Yet another difficulty with criterion validity is the possibility that the criterion measure will be inadvertently biased. This is referred to as criterion contamination and occurs when knowledge of the test results influences an individual’s later performance. For example, a supervisor in an organization who receives such information about subordinates may act differently toward a worker placed in a certain category after being tested. This situation may set up negative or positive expectations for the worker, which could influence his or her level of performance. The result is likely to artificially alter the level of the validity coefficients. To work around these difficulties, especially in regard to personality tests, a third major method must be used to determine validity.
Construct Validity
The method of construct validity was developed in part to correct the inadequacies and difficulties encountered with content and criterion approaches. Early forms of content validity relied too much on subjective judgment, while criterion validity was too restrictive in working with the domains or structure of the constructs being measured. Criterion validity had the further difficulty in that there was often a lack of agreement in deciding on adequate outside criteria. The basic approach of construct validity is to assess the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait. This assessment involves three general steps. Initially, the test constructor must make a careful analysis of the trait. This is followed by a consideration of the ways in which the trait should relate to other variables. Finally, the test designer needs to test whether these hypothesized relationships actually exist (Foster & Cone, 1995). For example, a test measuring dominance should have a high correlation with the individual accepting leadership roles and a low or negative correlation with measures of submissiveness. Likewise, a test measuring anxiety should have a high positive correlation with individuals who are measured during an anxiety-provoking situation, such as an experiment involving some sort of physical pain. As these hypothesized relationships are verified by research studies, the degree of confidence that can be placed in a test increases.
There is no single, best approach for determining construct validity; rather, a variety of different possibilities exist. For example, if some abilities are expected to increase with age, correlations can be made between a population’s test scores and age. This may be appropriate for variables such as intelligence or motor coordination, but it would not be applicable for most personality measurements. Even in the measurement of intelligence or motor coordination, this approach may not be appropriate beyond the age of maturity. Another method for determining construct validity is to measure the effects of experimental or treatment interventions. Thus, a posttest measurement may be taken following a period of instruction to see if the intervention affected the test scores in relation to a previous pretest measure. For example, after an examinee completes a course in arithmetic, it would be predicted that scores on a test of arithmetical ability would increase. Often, correlations can be made with other tests that supposedly measure a similar variable. However, a new test that correlates too highly with existing tests may represent needless duplication unless it incorporates some additional advantage such as a shortened format, ease of administration, or superior predictive validity. Factor analysis is of particular relevance to construct validation because it can be used to identify and assess the relative strength of different psychological traits. Factor analysis can also be used in the design of a test to identify the primary factor or factors measured by a series of different tests. Thus, it can be used to simplify one or more tests by reducing the number of categories to a few common factors or traits. The factorial validity of a test is the relative weight or loading that a factor has on the test. For example, if a factor analysis of a measure of psychopathology determined that the test was composed of two clear factors that seemed to be measuring anxiety and depression, the test could be considered to have factorial validity. This would be especially true if the two factors seemed to be accounting for a clear and large portion of what the test was measuring.
Another method used in construct validity is to estimate the degree of internal consistency by correlating specific subtests with the test’s total score. For example, if a subtest on an intelligence test does not correlate adequately with the overall or Full Scale IQ, it should be either eliminated or altered in a way that increases the correlation. A final method for obtaining construct validity is for a test to converge or correlate highly with variables that are theoretically similar to it. The test should not only show this convergent validity but also have discriminate validity, in which it would demonstrate low or negative correlations with variables that are dissimilar to it. Thus, scores on reading comprehension should show high positive correlations with performance in a literature class and low correlations with performance in a class involving mathematical computation.
Related to discriminant and convergent validity is the degree of sensitivity and specificity an assessment device demonstrates in identifying different categories. Sensitivity refers to the percentage of true positives that the instrument has identified, whereas specificity is the relative percentage of true negatives. A structured clinical interview might be quite sensitive in that it would accurately identify 90% of schizophrenics in an admitting ward of a hospital. However, it may not be sufficiently specific in that 30% of schizophrenics would be incorrectly classified as either normal or having some other diagnosis. The difficulty in determining sensitivity and specificity lies in developing agreed-on, objectively accurate outside criteria for categories such as psychiatric diagnosis, intelligence, or personality traits.
As indicated by the variety of approaches discussed, no single, quick, efficient method exists for determining construct validity. It is similar to testing a series of hypotheses in which the results of the studies determine the meanings that can be attached to later test scores (Foster & Cone, 1995; Messick, 1995). Almost any data can be used, including material from the content and criterion approaches. The greater the amount of supporting data, the greater is the level of confidence with which the test can be used. In many ways, construct validity represents the strongest and most sophisticated approach to test construction. In many ways, all types of validity can be considered as subcategories of construct validity. It involves theoretical knowledge of the trait or ability being measured, knowledge of other related variables, hypothesis testing, and statements regarding the relationship of the test variable to a network of other variables that have been investigated. Thus, construct validation is a never-ending process in which new relationships always can be verified and investigated.
Goal Commitment? What affects the strength of commitment to goals? How does this affect goal attainment? Goal commitment is our determination to pursue a course of action that will lead to the goal we aspire to achieve (Bandura, 1986). The strength of goal commitment will affect how hard one will try to attain the goal. Goal commitment affects by the properties described thus far: difficulty and specificity. For example, when goals are too difficult, commitment declines, followed by a drop-off in performance (Locke & Latham, 1990).
What is Goal Commitment?
“Degree to which a person determine in achieving a desired (or required) goal.”
Goals are central to current treatments of work motivation, and goal commitment is a critical construct in understanding the relationship between goals and task performance. Despite this importance, there is confusion about the role of goal commitment, and only recently has this key construct received the empirical attention it warrants. This meta-analysis, based on 83 independent samples, updates the goal commitment literature by summarizing the accumulated evidence on the antecedents and consequences of goal commitment. Using this aggregate empirical evidence, the role of goal commitment in the goal-setting process is clarified and key areas for future research identifies.
Commitment also affect by goal intensity, goal participation, and peer influence.
Goal Intensity:
Commitment is related to goal intensity, or the amount of thought or mental effort that goes into formulating a goal and how it will be attained (Locke & Latham, 1990). This is similar to goal clarification because when we clarify a goal; we involve in a conscious process of collecting information about the goal and task and our ability to attain it (Schutz, 1989).
In a study of fifth graders, Henderson (cited in Locke & Latham, 1990) found that students who formulated a greater number of reading purposes with more detail and elaboration attained their goals to a greater extent than did students with superficial purposes. Although there was no difference in IQ scores of the groups; the students who set more goals with elaboration were better readers. It stands to reason that the more thought that gives to developing a goal; the more likely one will commit to the goal.
Goal Participation:
How important, motivationally, is it for people to participate in goal setting? This is an important question because goals are often assigned by others at home, school, and work. The state imparts curriculum standards or goals to teachers, who in turn impose them on students. A sales manager may assign quotas to individual salespersons. Letting individuals participate in setting goals can lead to greater satisfaction. Nevertheless, telling people to achieve a goal can influence self-efficacy; because it suggests they are capable of achieving the goal (Locke & Latham, 1990).
To investigate the effects of assigned and self-set goals; Schunk (1985) conducted a study of sixth-grade students with LD who were learning subtraction. One group was assigned goals (e.g., “Why don’t you try to do seven pages today”). A second group set goals themselves (e.g., “Decide how many pages you can do today”). A third group worked without goals. Students who self-set goals had the highest self-efficacy and math scores. Both goal groups demonstrated higher levels of self-regulation than the control group without any goals.
Nevertheless, Locke and Latham (1990) concluded that self-set goals are not consistently more effective than assigned goals in increasing performance. The crucial factor in assigned goals is acceptance. Once individuals become involved in a goal, the goal itself becomes more important than how it was set or whether it was imposed. Because, at work and in schools, goals are often assigned by others; the assigned goals must accept by participants. Joint participation in goal setting by teachers and students may increase the acceptance of goals.
Peer Influence:
One factor where teachers might be influential in promoting goal acceptance and commitment is peer influence. Strong group pressures are likely to increase commitment to goals (Locke & Latham, 1990). This group cohesiveness is more often found on athletic teams. Obviously, the coach wants a strong commitment to the team goals. In the classroom, group goals may aid the commitment of students working in cooperative learning groups and thus lead to a higher quality of work.
An Entrepreneur will need to do if you want to commit towards achievement:
The following achievement below are;
Make sure that your business goals are achievable.
The biggest enemy of achieving business goals is setting up unrealistic goals. For example, if you set the goal to increase sales by 500%; although the growth of the industry is lower than 10%, surely, 500% would be unrealistic.
If you notice that some goal cannot be achieved, simply adjust it in the line with reality. For example, use a 15% increasing in sales instead of 500%. The goal of 15% would be much more realistic, and certainly; it will be as imperative for you and your business to achieve it because it is above-average in the industry.
Use specific sentences in your business goals.
Imagine the goal from our example above: increasing sales in the future. For how much we will need to increase the sales? At which time we will need to increase the sales? This is a really confusing and undetermined goal. If you don’t know what to achieve and when to achieve it, you will probably not even try to achieve it.
Write your business goals on the paper.
Different scientific researches prove that if you put something on a paper; your commitment to that something is will be higher. In his book Influence; The Psychology of Persuasion, Dr. Robert Cialdini gives an example from the Korean war in which the Chinese soldiers in the camps where he held prisoners (soldiers) were looking for written statements that communism is better than the US system to write on the paper. Thus a long time they were committed to his own statement in which basically they did not believe. If your business goal writes on paper they will be in a group with a higher commitment than the goals that remain only in our head.
Determine the activities that must accomplish.
Knowing the activities that must implement to achieve your business goals in advance will increase the level of commitment to the goal. Therefore, once you have the goal of the paper, list the activities.
Assign responsible for each activity.
At the end of each activity assign responsibility for implementations. In such a way, the commitment will transfer to the employees or your team members; and, at the same time will assure achievement.
What is Strategic Management? Strategic management involves the formulation and implementation of the major goals and initiatives taken by a company’s top management on behalf of owners, based on consideration of resources and an assessment of the internal and external environments in which the organization competes. Strategic management can also define as a bundle of decisions and acts which a manager undertakes and which decides the result of the firm’s performance.
Here explains read and learn; What is Strategic Management? Meaning and Definition.
Strategic management provides overall direction to the enterprise and involves specifying the organization’s objectives, developing policies and plans designed to achieve these objectives, and then allocating resources to implement the plans. Academics and practicing managers have developed numerous models and frameworks to assist in strategic decision making in the context of complex environments and competitive dynamics. Strategic management is not static; the models often include a feedback loop to monitor execution and inform the next round of planning.
Michael Porter identifies three principles underlying strategy: creating a “unique and valuable market position”, making trade-offs by choosing “what not to do”, and creating “fit” by aligning company activities with one another to support the chosen strategy. Dr. Vladimir Kvint defines strategy as “a system of finding, formulating, and developing a doctrine that will ensure long-term success if followed faithfully.”
The corporate strategy involves answering a key question from a portfolio perspective: “What business should we be in?” Business strategy involves answering the question: “How shall we compete in this business?” In management theory and practice, a further distinction is often made between strategic management and operational management. Operational management is concerned primarily with improving efficiency and controlling costs within the boundaries set by the organization’s strategy.
Definition of Strategic Management:
Strategic management involves the formulation and implementation of the major goals and initiatives taken by a company’s top management on behalf of owners, based on consideration of resources and an assessment of the internal and external environments in which the organization competes.
The strategy is defined as;
“The determination of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals.”
Strategies are established to set direction, focus effort, define or clarify the organization, and provide consistency or guidance in response to the environment. As well as, Strategic management involves the related concepts of strategic planning and strategic thinking. It is analytical and refers to formalized procedures to produce the data and analyses used as inputs for strategic thinking; which synthesizes the data resulting in the strategy. Strategic planning may also refer to control mechanisms used to implement the strategy once it determines.
In other words, strategic planning happens around strategic thinking or strategy making activity. Strategic management often describes as involving two major processes: formulation and implementation of a strategy. While described sequentially below, in practice the two processes are iterative and each provides input for the other. Also, Strategic Management is all about identification and description of the strategies; that managers can carry to achieve better performance and a competitive advantage for their organization. An organization is said to have a competitive advantage if its profitability is higher than the average profitability of all companies in its industry.
Explanation;
The manager must have a thorough knowledge and analysis of the general and competitive organizational environment to make the right decisions. They should conduct a SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats), i.e., they should make the best possible utilization of strengths, minimize the organizational weaknesses, make use of arising opportunities from the business environment and shouldn’t ignore the threats.
Strategic management is nothing but planning for both predictable as well as unfeasible contingencies. It applies to both small as well as large organizations as even the smallest organization faces competition; and, by formulating and implementing appropriate strategies; they can attain sustainable competitive advantage.
It is a way in which strategists set the objectives and proceed about attaining them. It deals with making and implementing decisions about the future direction of an organization. They help us to identify the direction in which an organization is moving.
Strategic management is a continuous process that evaluates and controls the business and the industries in which an organization involve; evaluates its competitors and sets goals and strategies to meet all existing and potential competitors; and then reevaluates strategies regularly to determine how it has been implemented and whether it was successful or does it needs replacement.
What is Strategic Management? Meaning and Definition.
More things;
Strategic Management gives a broader perspective to the employees of an organization; and, they can better understand how their job fits into the entire organizational plan; how it co-relate to other organizational members. It is nothing but the art of managing employees in a manner that maximizes the ability to achieve business objectives. The employees become more trustworthy, more committed and satisfied; as they can co-relate themselves very well with each organizational task.
They can understand the reaction of environmental changes in the organization; and, the probable response of the organization with the help of strategic management. Thus the employees can judge the impact of such changes on their job and can effectively face the changes. Also, the managers and employees must appropriately do appropriate things. They need to be both effective as well as efficient.
