Tag: Skills

  • How to Set Your Organize Priorities?

    How to Set Your Organize Priorities?

    There are specific skills and steps that you can learn to effectively manage multiple priorities and to actually assess which activities you need to work on first then next in order to tame your daily and weekly schedule. I’ve tried to organize the best time management advice I can find into one place and make it “research administrator-friendly.”

    The ability to prioritize is highly important in terms of achieving your goal. It helps you to identify and focus only on the essential tasks. It frees you from falling into procrastination or getting distracted by less important tasks. By harnessing this skill, you will be less stressed and a lot more organized and put-together.

    To become proficient in prioritizing, you can start by applying former U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle.

    Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle

    In 1954, he mentioned that there are “two kinds of problems: the urgent and the important. The urgent are not important, and the important are never urgent.” In this sense, these two concepts can be defined as follows:

    Important tasks are those whose results lead to the achievement of our personal or professional goals.

    Urgent tasks require your immediate attention. However, they are typically related to the goal of someone else (such as your boss). Nevertheless, we focus on them more because there are negative consequences to not doing them right away.

    At this point, you may want to reflect on three things.

    First, identify which tasks or activities are most important to you. Are they in line with your goal? How far along are you in terms of accomplishing it?

    Second, look back on how you spend your time each day. Do you focus on what is urgent? Were you able to find time for what is important?

    Finally, consider how you can make time for what is important and still be able to do what is urgent. Alternatively, think about whether you can sacrifice what is urgent for what is important.

    One strategy that can help you focus on the important tasks first is to do them at the start of your day. The reason why this is effective is that you would still make time for what is urgent later on in the day. After all, you will always find a way to do what is urgent to avoid the consequence.

    Make sure to write down all your thoughts until you can flesh out a concrete plan out of them.

    The Pareto Principle

    It is easy to prioritize when you are in control of your time and resources. However, things take a more challenging turn when you are faced with many issues that will force you to make quick decisions.

    If ever you find yourself in this situation, then you can take a page out of Italian economist Wilfredo Pareto. According to him, eighty percent of the effects of most events come from twenty percent of the causes. To make his point clear, he explained two examples.

    The first one is that 80 percent of the properties in his homeland are owned by only 20 percent of the population. The second, on which his principle is initially based, is that 20 percent of the pea-pods in his garden held 80 percent of the peas produce.

    To this day, the Pareto Principle is being used by many professionals to gauge almost anything, such as by stating that 80 percent of a corporation’s sales come from only 20 percent of its products.

    Going back to the concept of Prioritization, you can apply the Pareto Principle by applying the following steps:

    1. Identify the main problems.

    Take note of every issue that is holding you back from achieving your goal or task. If you are working as a team, consult each member to get their own insights. You might also need to consult your progress chart.

    1. Determine the main cause of each problem.

    According to the concept of Root Cause Analysis, there are three common root causes behind any problem. These are Physical Causes, Human Causes, and Organizational Causes.

    When something breaks down or fails to operate due to some tangible or observable aspect, then it is due to a Physical Cause. One example is you being unable to finish a three-page report due tomorrow because your laptop computer crashed.

    If a person failed to do something, or did something wrong, then the problem is from a Human Cause. An example would be your co-worker failing to send you an email of the survey results for your report tomorrow.

    In situations where, despite the effectiveness of tools and the efficient skills of the people involved, the process itself caused the problem, then it is considered to be due to an Organizational Cause. One example is the pyramid scheme, in that the products are effective and the salespeople are passionate and trained. Yet, the system itself fails to be sustainable.

    Based on this perspective, it is easy to identify the root cause of some problems. However, if you find it a challenge to do so, then you should ask yourself these questions to help you deduce the issue until you can identify the root cause.

    What happened?

    How did it happen?

    Why did it happen?

    Will it happen again?

    Why or why not?

    1. Rearrange the problems in order of priority.

    After you have identified the root cause for each problem, you should then create another list of the same problems. Only this time, you will be enumerating them based on how important it is for them to be solved. This way, you will instantly know which one to focus on solving first before you move on to the second, third, and so on.

    1. Come up with the solutions.

    Now that you have analyzed and organized all the problems, the final step is to solve each of them. Start with the most important problem to be solved, and then brainstorm on the best steps to take to address it.

    Now that you know how to apply Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle and Pareto’s Principle, you can choose from a variety of time management tools in organizing all this information. A simple chart on a spreadsheet should do the trick, and it can look something like this:

    Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle

    Today’s List of Tasks

    Important Tasks Urgent Tasks

    Task 1 – 8:00 am to 9:30 am Task 1 – 11:00 am to 12:00 am

    Task 2 – 10:00 am to 10:30 am Task 2 – 1:00 pm to 3:00 pm

    Pareto’s Principle

    Ranking Problem Root Cause Solution:

    1 Problem A Root Cause A Solution A

    2 Problem B Root Cause B Solution B

    3 Problem C Root Cause C Solution C

    By using these tools, you will surely be able to get more tasks done throughout your day. Of course, this does not mean that these tools alone will enable you to focus on getting the job done. There will be times when we fail to focus on a task because of unexpected occurrences and distractions. However, you can overcome these challenges by improving your ability to concentrate. The next chapter can provide you with tips and strategies on how to do just that.

  • Practice Does Not Make Perfect

    Practice Does Not Make Perfect

    Several years ago at the National Spelling Bee, one of the young ladies really excelled among the others in the competition. With a bright smile, she confidently spelled each word without hesitation. After she had won the contest, she was being interviewed by the television network and was asked how she became just an outstanding speller. She looked directly into the camera and stated, “My success is due to two things, God and Practice!”

    I spent the first sixteen and one-half years of my working life as an educator. Two particular coaches really stand out in my mind. One fellow would practice his football team hour upon hour, day upon day, week upon week. He would practice his team on weekends and holidays. His practice time ran for hours with disgruntled parents waiting in the parking lot to pick up their kids. He was known far and near as being a tough and demanding coach, a reputation which he treasured. His players seemed to always suffer from burnout and bad attitudes. This coach was known throughout the state as being a tough coach. The problem was he could never produce a championship team. In fact, he often struggled just to have a winning season! Then there was coach number two.

    Coach number two had a whole different philosophy. His practice times were short but compact. The attitudes among his players were great. Every drill had a purpose. His practice time was filled with fun things that developed skills and motivated his athletes. The parents of his athletes loved him; the school board loved him; the Booster Club loved him; and his players loved him. He was always in demand as a public speaker at civic clubs and coaching clinics. Guess what? He also always produced the best teams, winning seasons, and led the conference in athletic scholarships for his players.

    What was the difference in these two coaches? Coach number two had learned the secret of success. Contrary to Ben Franklin or whoever gets credit for the old saying… practice does not make perfect. Only “good” practice makes perfect! If a person does the same thing over and ever and over, but does it the wrong way, it is still wrong. That person is wasting his time, spinning his wheels and reinforcing the negative. A person has to determine the things that work and concentrate on strengthening and improving the little things that will enhance their success ratio. Doing the same thing over and over will produce the same results. If something is not working, then evaluate it (Remember the principals of management?), and make adjustments so that the results will be different. In the world in which we live, the winners have learned to do this whether it is in one’s personal life, business life, hobbies or in coaching!

    A person can find true peace and self-actualization through accomplishment. On the other hand, continuous failure leads to a very sad and unfulfilling life. There are so many people who continue to live their lives in a rut that leads to nowhere. They work in jobs that they do not like, with people that they cannot tolerate and in positions that are unrewarding. This is so sad since life is full of opportunity, excitement and adventure. Why would anyone stay in a situation in which they merely exist instead of flourish? Life has too much to offer for one to waste away his precious years and trade each day of his life for a paycheck! That is why entrepreneurs are different from other people. There is something in their inner being that will not allow them to merely survive.

    Zig Ziglar has inspired thousands upon thousands with his books and public appearances. I had the opportunity to meet Mr. Ziglar several years ago and found him to be even more dynamic in person as he is in his books and on his tapes. Zig believes, as I do, that a good attitude is the most important personal asset that a person possesses. One’s outlook on life determines how far he will go. One’s attitude determines how one reacts to the inevitable failures that even the most successful people have to overcome. As Zig states, “It’s not what happens to you that is important, but rather how you react to what happens to you.” How true this statement is! When things don’t go right, do you fall apart? Do you lash out and blame others? Do you wallow in your failure or do you pick yourself up, dust yourself off and continue to plunge forward? We have all heard the stories of Thomas Edison and the number of times that he suffered defeat and setbacks in his endeavor to invent the light bulb and some of his other inventions. We have all heard the stories of Col. Harland Sanders and how he only found success with his Kentucky Fried Chicken idea after he retired from what he really did for a living. We have heard the story of Garth Brooks who was rejected time and time again by the major record labels in Nashville before a chance appearance at the Bluebird Café turned his life around. Garth went on to be the biggest single country act in history! These type stories go on and on. Zig states that, “One’s attitude, not his aptitude, will determine his altitude.” How true this statement is for the aspiring entrepreneur?

    Over the years, I have discovered that entrepreneurs have a different outlook on life. There is the story about the young clerk in the department store who was approached by a customer who asked him if he was the manager. The young man looked up at the customer and quickly replied, “No sir! Not yet!” What a great answer! Just imagine if the young man had hanged his head and replied, “Oh no sir. Not me. I’m just a clerk.” What a different image that would have projected. There is another story about the two men who were both working side by side digging a ditch that was to be the foundation for a huge new palace. A passerby stopped and asked the first man what he was doing. Belligerently, he replied, “Can’t you see that I’m digging a ditch?” The passerby continued over to the second man and stated, “Well, I see that you are digging a ditch also.” “No sir”, replied the second man. “I’m building a palace!” Attitude! Attitude! Attitude!

    Once, several years ago, I was watching one of the local television stations in my home town of Huntsville, Alabama. The local news had had a contest among the regional junior high school students and had selected one of the students to co-host the weather forecast. The young man that won the contest gave his weather report along with the station’s meteorologist. After the report, the meteorologist conducted a quick interview with the young man. He asked him about his education and future ambitions. The meteorologist concluded his interview by asking him if one day he wanted to be the weatherman at the station. The young man paused, and with a perplexed look on his face replied, “No sir! One day I want to own this station!” I could not help but get a lump in my throat when I heard his answer. That is the attitude that this country desperately needs! Why work at the station when you can own the station? That is the mindset of the entrepreneur.

  • Meiosis and Gamete Formation

    Do you Know about Meiosis and Gamete Formation?

    Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating four haploid cells, each genetically distinct from the parent cell that gave rise to them. This process occurs in all sexually reproducing single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and fungi. Errors in meiosis resulting in aneuploidy are the leading known cause of miscarriage and the most frequent genetic cause of developmental disabilities.

    In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four potential daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. The two meiotic divisions are known as Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Before meiosis begins, during S phase of the cell cycle, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical sister chromatids, which remain held together through sister chromatid cohesion. This S-phase can be referred to as “premeiotic S-phase” or “meiotic S-phase.” Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged G2-like stage known as meiotic prophase. During this time, homologous chromosomes pair with each other and undergo genetic recombination, a programmed process in which DNA is cut and then repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their genetic information. A subset of recombination events results in crossovers, which create physical links known as chiasmata (singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter Chi (X)) between the homologous chromosomes. In most organisms, these links are essential to direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to segregate away from each other during Meiosis I, resulting in two haploid cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. During Meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during mitosis. In some cases all four of the meiotic products form gametes such as sperm, spores, or pollen. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically eliminated by extrusion into polar bodies, and only one cell develops to produce an ovum.

    Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can fuse (i.e. fertilization) to form a diploid zygote that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable sexual reproduction, with successive generations maintaining the same number of chromosomes. For example, diploid human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces haploid gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that utilize meiosis.

    Meiosis

    Most plant and animal cells are diploid. The term diploid is derived from the Greek diplos, meaning “double” or “two”; the term implies that the cells of plants and animals have pairs of chromosomes. In human cells, for example, 46 chromosomes are organized in 23 pairs. Hence, human cells are diploid in that they have a pair of 23 individual chromosomes.

    During sexual reproduction, the sex cells of parent organisms unite with one another and form a fertilized egg cell (zygote). In this situation, each sex cell is a gamete. The gametes of human cells are haploid, from the Greek haplos, meaning “single.” This term implies that each gamete contains half of the 46 chromosomes—23 chromosomes in humans. When the human gametes unite with one another, the original diploid condition of 46 chromosomes is reestablished. Mitosis then brings about the development of the diploid cell into a multicellular organism.

    The process by which the chromosome number is halved during gamete formation is meiosis. In meiosis, a cell containing the diploid number of chromosomes is converted into four cells, each having the haploid number of chromosomes. In human cells undergoing meiosis, for instance, a cell containing 46 chromosomes yields four cells, each with 23 chromosomes.

    Meiosis occurs by a series of steps that resemble the steps of mitosis. Two major phases of meiosis occur: meiosis I and meiosis II. During meiosis I, a single cell divides into two. During meiosis II, those two cells each divide again. The same demarcating phases of mitosis take place in meiosis I and meiosis II—prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase—but with some variations contained therein.

    As shown in Figure 1, first, the chromosomes of a cell are divided into two cells. The chromosomes of the two cells then separate and pass into four daughter cells. The parent cell is diploid, while each of the daughter cells has a single set of chromosomes and is haploid. Synapsis and crossing over occur in the prophase I stage.

    Meiosis and Gamete Formation Stages

    Figure 1  The process of meiosis, in which four haploid cells are formed.

    The members of each chromosome pair within a cell are called homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are similar but not identical. They may carry different versions of the same genetic information. For instance, one homologous chromosome may carry the information for blond hair while the other homologous chromosome may carry the information for black hair.

    Meiosis Phases

    As a cell prepares to enter meiosis, each of its chromosomes has duplicated in the synthesis stage (S) of the cell cycle, as in mitosis. Each chromosome thus consists of two sister chromatids.

    Meiosis I: At the beginning of meiosis, I, a human cell contains 46 chromosomes, or 92 chromatids (the same number as during mitosis). Meiosis I proceeds through the following phases:

    Prophase I: Prophase I is similar in some ways to prophase in mitosis. The chromatids shorten and thicken and become visible under a microscope. An important difference, however, is that a process called synapsis occurs. Synapsis is when the homologous chromosomes migrate toward one another and join to form a tetrad (the combination of four chromatids, two from each homologous chromosome). A second process called crossing over also takes place during prophase I. In this process, segments of DNA from one chromatid in the tetrad pass to another chromatid in the tetrad. These exchanges of chromosomal segments occur in a complex and poorly understood manner. They result in a genetically new chromatid. Crossing over is an important driving force of evolution. After crossing over has taken place, the homologous pair of chromosomes is genetically different.

    Metaphase I: In metaphase I of meiosis, the tetrads align on the equatorial plate (as in mitosis). The centromeres attach to spindle fibers, which extend from the poles of the cell. One centromere attaches per spindle fiber.

    Anaphase I: In anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes or tetrads separate. One homologous chromosome (consisting of two chromatids) moves to one side of the cell, while the other homologous chromosome (consisting of two chromatids) moves to the other side of the cell. The result is that 23 chromosomes (each consisting of two chromatids) move to one pole, and 23 chromosomes (each consisting of two chromatids) move to the other pole. Essentially, the chromosome number of the cell is halved once meiosis I is completed. For this reason, the process is a reduction-division.

    Telophase I: In telophase I of meiosis, the nucleus reorganizes, the chromosomes become chromatin, and the cell membrane begins to pinch inward. Cytokinesis occurs immediately following telophase I. This process occurs differently in plant and animal cells, just as in mitosis.

    Meiosis II: Meiosis II is the second major subdivision of meiosis. It occurs in essentially the same way as mitosis. In meiosis II, a cell contains a single set of chromosomes. Each chromosome, however, still has its duplicated sister chromatid attached. Meiosis II segregates the sister chromatids into separate cells. Meiosis II proceeds through the following phases:

    Prophase II: Prophase II is similar to the prophase of mitosis. The chromatin material condenses, and each chromosome contains two chromatids attached by the centromere. The 23 chromatid pairs, a total of 46 chromatids, then move to the equatorial plate.

    Metaphase II: In metaphase II of meiosis, the 23 chromatid pairs gather at the center of the cell prior to separation. This process is identical to metaphase in mitosis, except that this is occurring in a haploid versus a diploid cell.

    Anaphase II: During anaphase II of meiosis, the centromeres divide and sister chromatids separate, at which time they are referred to as non-replicated chromosomes. Spindle fibers move chromosomes to each pole. In all, 23 chromosomes move to each pole. The forces and attachments that operate in mitosis also operate in anaphase II.

    Telophase II: During telophase II, the chromosomes gather at the poles of the cells and become indistinct. Again, they form a mass of chromatin. The nuclear envelope develops, the nucleoli reappear, and the cells undergo cytokinesis.

    During meiosis II, each cell containing 46 chromatids yields two cells, each with 23 chromosomes. Originally, there were two cells that underwent meiosis II; therefore, the result of meiosis II is four cells, each with 23 chromosomes. Each of the four cells is haploid; that is, each cell contains a single set of chromosomes.

    The 23 chromosomes in the four cells from meiosis are not identical because crossing over has taken place in prophase I. The crossing over yields genetic variation so that each of the four resulting cells from meiosis differs from the other three. Thus, meiosis provides a mechanism for producing variations in the chromosomes. Also, it accounts for the formation of four haploid cells from a single diploid cell.

    Meiosis in Humans

    In humans, meiosis is the process by which sperm cells and egg cells are produced. In the male, meiosis takes place after puberty. Diploid cells within the testes undergo meiosis to produce haploid sperm cells with 23 chromosomes. A single diploid cell yields four haploid sperm cells through meiosis.

    In females, meiosis begins during the fetal stage when a series of diploid cells enter meiosis I. At the conclusion of meiosis, I, the process comes to a halt, and the cells gather in the ovaries. At puberty, meiosis resumes. One cell at the end of meiosis I enters meiosis II each month. The result of meiosis II is a single egg cell per cycle (the other meiotic cells disintegrate). Each egg cell contains 23 chromosomes and is haploid.

    The union of the egg cell and the sperm cell leads to the formation of a fertilized egg cell with 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs. Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes. The fertilized egg cell, a diploid, is a zygote. Further divisions of the zygote by mitosis eventually yield a complete human being.

    Gamete

    Gametes are the cells that fuse together during sexual reproduction to form a new organism. This lesson covers what these cells are, what they do, and the end result of when they meet.

    Definition of Gamete

    Gametes are the reproductive cells used during sexual reproduction to produce a new organism called a zygote. The gametes in males and females are different. The male gamete is called sperm. It is much smaller than the female gamete and very mobile. It has a long tail, flagellum, that allows it to move towards the female gamete. The female gamete is called an egg or ova. It is much larger than the sperm and is not made to move.

    Formation of Gametes

    Both the male and female gametes are formed during a process of cellular reproduction called meiosis. During meiosis, the DNA is only replicated or copied one time. However, the cells are divided into four separate cells. This means that the new gamete cells have only half of the number of chromosomes as the other cells. So, during meiosis DNA or chromosomes are copied, then split into two cells (with one full set of chromosomes each), then again split into two more cells, leaving only half of the pairs of chromosomes in each new cell.

    These new cells with only half of the chromosomes will mature into the gametes. The gametes are haploid cells because they have only one set of chromosomes. When they unite they will join their single sets of chromosomes to make a complete set, and then they will be considered diploid cells. In the female, the eggs or ova mature in the female’s ovaries. The sperm will mature in the male’s testes.

  • Mitosis and Cell Reproduction

    What do you understand of Mitosis and Cell Reproduction?

    Cell Cycle

    The cell cycle or cell division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells. In cells with a nucleus, as in eukaryotes, the cell cycle is also divided into three periods: interphase, the mitotic (M) phase, and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, preparing it for cell division and duplicating its DNA. During the mitotic phase, the chromosomes separate. During the final stage, cytokinesis, the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper division of the cell, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints.

    Animal cell cycle
    Animal cell cycle

    The cell cycle involves many repetitions of cellular growth and reproduction. With few exceptions (for example, red blood cells), all the cells of living things undergo a cell cycle.

    The cell cycle is generally divided into two phases: interphase and mitosis. During interphase, the cell spends most of its time performing the functions that make it unique. Mitosis is the phase of the cell cycle during which the cell divides into two daughter cells.

    Interphase

    The interphase stage of the cell cycle includes three distinctive parts: The G1 phase, the S phase, and the G2 phase. The G1 phase follows mitosis and is the period in which the cell is synthesizing its structural proteins and enzymes to perform its functions. For example, a pancreas cell in the G1 phase will produce and secrete insulin, a muscle cell will undergo the contractions that permit movement, and a salivary gland cell will secrete salivary enzymes to assist digestion. During the G1 phase, each chromosome consists of a single molecule of DNA and its associated histone protein. In normal human cells, there are 46 chromosomes per cell (except in sex cells with 23 chromosomes and red blood cells with no nucleus and, hence, no chromosomes).

    During the S phase of the cell cycle, the DNA within the nucleus replicates. During this process, each chromosome is faithfully copied, so by the end of the S phase, two DNA molecules exist for each one formerly present in the G1 phase. Human cells contain 92 chromosomes per cell in the S phase.

    In the G2 phase, the cell prepares for mitosis. Proteins organize themselves to form a series of fibers called the spindle, which is involved in chromosome movement during mitosis. The spindle is constructed from amino acids for each mitosis, and then taken apart at the conclusion of the process. Spindle fibers are composed of microtubules.

    Mitosis

    The term mitosis is derived from the Latin stem mito, meaning “threads.” When mitosis was first described a century ago, scientists had seen “threads” within cells, so they gave the name “mitosis” to the process of “thread movement.” During mitosis, the nuclear material becomes visible as threadlike chromosomes. The chromosomes organize in the center of the cell, and then they separate, and 46 chromosomes move into each new cell that forms.

    In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. In general, mitosis ( the division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often accompanied or followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.

    Mitosis is a continuous process, but for convenience in denoting which portion of the process is taking place, scientists divide mitosis into a series of phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (see Figure 1):

    Mitosis and Cell Reproduction Process

    Figure 1. The process of mitosis, in which the chromosomes of a cell duplicate and pass into two daughter cells.

    Types of Mitosis

    Types of Mitosis

    The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell’s genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during the S phase of interphase. Chromosome duplication results in two identical sister chromatids bound together by cohesin proteins at the centromere.

    When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example, animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart. Sister chromatids at this point are called daughter chromosomes. As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei.

    During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. In animal cells, a cell membrane pinches inward between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei. Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis.

    Prophase: Mitosis begins with the condensing of the chromatin to form chromosomes in the phase called prophase. Two copies of each chromosome exist; each one is a chromatid. Two chromatids are joined to one another at a region called the centromere. As prophase unfolds, the chromatids become visible in pairs (called sister chromatids), the spindle fibers form, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear envelope dissolves.

    In animal cells during prophase, microscopic bodies called centrioles begin to migrate to opposite sides of the cell. When the centrioles reach the poles of the cell, they produce and are then surrounded by a series of radiating microtubules called an aster. Centrioles and asters are not present in most plant or fungal cells.

    As prophase continues, the chromatids attach to spindle fibers that extend out from opposite poles of the cell. The spindle fibers attach at the region of the centromere at a structure called the kinetochore, an area of protein in the centromere region. Eventually, all pairs of chromatids reach the center of the cell, a region called the equatorial plate.

    Metaphase: Metaphase is the stage of mitosis in which the pairs of chromatids line up on the equatorial plate. This region is also called the metaphase plate. In a human cell, 92 chromosomes in 46 pairs align at the equatorial plate. Each pair is connected at the centromere, where the spindle fiber is attached (more specifically at the kinetochore).

    Anaphase: At the beginning of anaphase, the sister chromatids move apart from one another. The chromatids are called chromosomes after the separation. Each chromosome is attached to a spindle fiber, and the members of each chromosome pair are drawn to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. During anaphase, the chromosomes can be seen moving. They take on a rough V shape because of their midregion attachment to the spindle fibers. The movement toward the poles is accomplished by several mechanisms, such as an elongation of the spindle fibers, which results in pushing the poles apart.

    The result of anaphase is an equal separation and distribution of the chromosomes. In human cells, a total of 46 chromosomes move to each pole as the process of mitosis continues.

    Telophase: In telophase, the chromosomes finally arrive at the opposite poles of the cell. The distinct chromosomes begin to fade from sight as masses of chromatin are formed again. The events of telophase are essentially the reverse of those in prophase. The spindle is dismantled and its amino acids are recycled, the nucleoli reappear, and the nuclear envelope is reformed.

    Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is the process in which the cytoplasm divides and two separate cells form. Note that cytokinesis is separate from the four stages of mitosis. In animal cells, cytokinesis begins with the formation of a cleavage furrow in the center of the cell. With the formation of the furrow, the cell membrane begins to pinch into the cytoplasm, and the formation of two cells begins. This process is often referred to as cell cleavage. Microfilaments contract during cleavage and assist the division of the cell into two daughter cells.

    In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by a different process because a rigid cell wall is involved. Cleavage does not take place in plant cells. Rather, a new cell wall is assembled at the center of the cell, beginning with vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus (see Bilogy of Cells). As the vesicles join, they form a double membrane called the cell plate. The cell plate forms in the middle of the cytoplasm and grows outward to fuse with the cell membrane. The cell plate separates the two daughter cells. As cell wall material is laid down, the two cells move apart from one another to yield two new daughter cells.

    Mitosis serves several functions in living cells. In many simple organisms, it is the method for asexual reproduction (for example, in the cells of a fungus). In multicellular organisms, mitosis allows the entire organism to grow by forming new cells and replacing older cells. In certain species, mitosis is used to heal wounds or regenerate body parts. It is the universal process for cell division in eukaryotic cells.

    Cell Nucleus

    A distinguishing feature of a living thing is that it reproduces independent of other living things. This reproduction occurs at the cellular level. In certain parts of the body, such as along the gastrointestinal tract, the cells reproduce often. In other parts of the body, such as in the nervous system, the cells reproduce less frequently. With the exception of only a few kinds of cells, such as red blood cells (which lack nuclei when fully mature), all cells of the human body reproduce.

    In eukaryotic cells (see Bilogy of Cells), the structure and contents of the nucleus are of fundamental importance to an understanding of cell reproduction. The nucleus contains the hereditary material (DNA) of the cell assembled into chromosomes. In addition, the nucleus usually contains one or more prominent nucleoli (dense bodies that are the site of ribosome synthesis).

    Anatomy of the Nucleus

    Figure 2: Anatomy of the Nucleus

    The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope consisting of a double membrane that is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. Transport of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm is accomplished through a series of nuclear pores lined with proteins that facilitate the passage of molecules out of the nucleus. The proteins provide a certain measure of selectivity in the passage of molecules across the nuclear membrane.

    The nuclear material consists of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) organized into long strands. The strands of DNA are composed of nucleotides bonded to one another by covalent bonds. DNA molecules are extremely long relative to the cell; there are approximately 6 feet of DNA in a single human cell. However, in the chromosome, the DNA is condensed and packaged with protein into manageable bodies. The mass of DNA material and its associated protein is chromatin.

    To form chromatin, the DNA molecule is wound around globules of a protein called histone. The units formed in this way are nucleosomes. Millions of nucleosomes are connected by short stretches of histone protein, much like beads on a string. The configuration of the nucleosomes in a coil causes additional coiling of the DNA and the eventual formation of the chromosome.

  • Do You Really Want to your Own a Business?

    Do You Really Want to your Own a Business?

    If “Yes” So, this article of post little help you How to Start. “Hope springs eternal in the human breast,” said English poet and essayist Alexander Pope several centuries ago. He wasn’t describing people expanding or starting a business, but he may as well have been. Everyone who goes into business for themselves hopes to meet or surpass a set of personal goals.

    A business (also known as an enterprise, a company or a firm) is an organizational entity involved in the provision of goods and services to consumers. Businesses serve as a form of economic activity and are prevalent in capitalist economies, where most of them are privately owned and provide goods and services allocated through a market to consumers and customers in exchange for other goods, services, money, or other forms of exchange that hold intrinsic economic value. Businesses may also be social non-profit enterprises or state-owned public enterprises operated by governments with specific social and economic objectives. A business owned by multiple private individuals may form an incorporated company or jointly organize as a partnership. Countries have different laws that may ascribe different rights to the various business entities.

    The word “business” can refer to a particular organization or to an entire market sector (for example: “the financial sector”) or to the sum of all economic activity (“the business sector”). Compound forms such as “agribusiness” represent subsets of the concept’s broader meaning, which encompasses all activity by suppliers of goods and services.

    Sole Ownership: A sole proprietorship (ownership), also known as a sole trader, is owned by one person and operates for their benefit. The owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, whether from operating costs or judgments against the business. All assets of the business belong to a sole proprietor, including, for example, a computer infrastructure, any inventory, manufacturing equipment, or retail fixtures, as well as any real property owned by the sole proprietor.

    Do You Really Want to your Own a Business - Sole Ownership

    While your particular configuration is sure to be unique, perhaps you will agree with some of the ones I have compiled over the years from talking to hundreds of budding entrepreneurs.

    Independence: A search for freedom and independence is the driving force behind many businesspeople. Wasn’t it Johnny Paycheck who wrote the song “Take This Job and Shove It?”

    Personal Fulfillment: For many people, owning a business is a genuinely fulfilling experience, one that lifetime employees never know.

    Lifestyle Change: many people find that while they can make a good income working for other people, they are missing some of life’s precious moments. With the flexibility of small business ownership, you can take time to stop and smell the roses.

    Respect: Successful small business owners are respected, both by themselves and their peers.

    Money: You can get rich in a small business, or at least do very well financially. most entrepreneurs don’t get wealthy, but some do. If money is your motivator, admit it.

    Power: When it is your business, you can have your employees do it your way. There is a little Ghengis Khan in us all, so don’t be surprised if power is one of your goals. If it is, think about how to use this goal in a constructive way.

    Right Livelihood: From natural foods to solar power to many types of service businesses, a great many cause-driven small businesses have done very well by doing good.

    If owning a small business can help a person accomplish these goals, it’s small wonder that so many are started. Unfortunately, while the potential for great success exists, so do many risks. Running a small business may require that you sacrifice some short-term comforts for long-term benefits. It is hard, demanding work that requires a wide variety of skills few people are born with. But even if you possess (or more likely acquire) the skills and determination you need to successfully run a business, your business will need one more critical ingredient: money.

    You need money to start your business, money to keep it running, and money to make it grow. This is not the same thing as saying you can guarantee success in your small business if you begin with a fat wallet. now, let me confess to one major bias here. I believe that most small business owners and founders are better off starting small and borrowing, or otherwise raising, as little money as possible. Put another way, there is no such thing as “raising plenty of capital to ensure success.” Unless you, as the prospective business founder, learn to get the most mileage out of every dollar, you may go broke and will surely spend more than you need to. But that doesn’t mean that you should try to save money by selling cheap merchandise or providing marginal services. In today’s competitive economy, your customers want the best you can give them at the best price. They will remember the quality of what they get from you long after they have forgotten how much they paid.

    In practical terms, that means you must buy only the best goods for your customers. Anything that affects the image your business has in your customer’s mind should be first-rate. It also means that you shouldn’t spend money on things that don’t affect the customer. For example, unless you’re a real estate broker your customers probably won’t care if you drive an old, beat-up car to an office in a converted broom closet, as long as you provide them an honest product or service for an honest price. Save the nice car, fancy office, and mobile telephone until after your business is a success.

    Self-Evaluation Exercises

    Here’s a question to ponder: Are you the right person for your business? Because running a business is a very demanding endeavor that can take most of your time and energy, your business probably will suffer if you’re unhappy. Your business can become an albatross around your neck if you don’t have the skills and temperament to run it. Simply put, I’ve learned that no business, whether or not it has sound financial backing, is likely to succeed unless you, as the prospective owner, make two decisions correctly:

    • You must honestly evaluate yourself to decide whether you possess the skills and personality needed to succeed in a small business.
    • You must choose the right business.

    A small business is a very personal endeavor. It will honestly reflect your opinions and attitudes, whether or not you design it that way. Think of it this way: The shadow your business casts will be your shadow. If you are sloppy, rude, crafty, or naively trusting, your business will mirror these attributes. If your personal characteristics are more positive than those, your business will be more positive, too. To put this concretely, suppose you go out for the Sunday paper and are met by a newsie who is groggy from a hangover and badmouths his girlfriend in front of you. chances are that next Sunday will find you at a different newsstand.

    I’m not saying you need to be psychologically perfect to run a small business. But to succeed, you must ask people for their money every day and convince a substantial number of them to give it to you. By providing your goods or services, you will create intimate personal relationships with a number of people. It makes no difference whether you refer to people who give you money as clients, customers, patients, members, students, or disciples. It makes a great deal of difference to your chances of ultimate success if you understand that these people are exchanging their money for the conviction that you are giving them their money’s worth.

    The following self-evaluation exercises will help you assess whether you have what it takes to successfully run a small business. Take out a blank sheet of paper or open a computer file.

    Your Strong and Weak Points

    Take a few minutes to list your personal and business strengths and weaknesses. Include everything you can think of, even if it doesn’t appear to be related to your business. For instance, your strong points may include the mastery of a hobby, your positive personality traits, and your sexual charisma, as well as your specific business skills. Take your time and be generous.

    To provide you with a little help, I include a sample list for Antoinette Gorzak, a personal friend who has what she hopes is a good business idea: a slightly different approach to selling women’s clothing. You’ll get to know her better as we go along. Her strengths, weaknesses, fantasies, and fears are surely different from yours. So, too, almost certainly, is the business she wants to start. So be sure to make your own lists—don’t copy Antoinette’s.

    Your list of strong and weak points will help you see any obvious conflicts between your personality and the business you’re in or want to start. For example, if you don’t like being around people but plan to start a life insurance agency with you as the primary salesperson, you may have a personality clash with your business. The solution might be to find another part of the insurance business that doesn’t require as much people contact.

    Unfortunately, many people don’t realize that their personalities will have a direct bearing on their business success. An example close to the experience of folks at nolo involves bookstores. In the years since nolo began publishing, they have seen all sorts of people, from retired librarians to unemployed Ph.D.’s, open bookstores. A large percentage of these stores have failed because the skills needed to run a successful bookstore involve more than a love of books.

    General and Specific Skills Your Business Needs

    Businesses need two kinds of skills to survive and prosper: Skills for business in general and skills specific to the particular business. For example, every business needs someone to keep good financial records. on the other hand, the tender touch and manual dexterity needed by glassblowers are not skills needed by the average paving contractor. Next, take a few minutes and list the skills your business needs. don’t worry about making an exhaustively complete list, just jot down the first things that come to mind. make sure you have some general business skills as well as some of the more important skills specific to your particular business.

    If you don’t have all the skills your business needs, your backers will want to know how you will make up for the deficiency. For example, let’s say you want to start a trucking business. You have a good background in maintenance, truck repair, and long distance driving, and you know how to sell and get work. Sounds good so far—but, let’s say you don’t know the first thing about bookkeeping or cash flow management and the thought of using a computer makes you nervous. Because some trucking businesses work on large dollar volumes, small profit margins, and slow-paying customers, your backers will expect you to learn cash flow management or hire someone qualified to handle that part of the business.

    Your Likes and Dislikes

    Take a few minutes and make a list of the things you really like doing and those you don’t enjoy. Write this list without thinking about the business—simply concentrate on what makes you happy or unhappy.

    If you enjoy talking to new people, keeping books, or working with computers, be sure to include those. Put down all the activities you can think of that give you pleasure. Antoinette’s list is shown as an example.

    As a business owner, you will spend most of your waking hours in the business, and if it doesn’t make you happy, you probably won’t be very good at it. If this list creates doubts about whether you’re pursuing the right business, I suggest you let your unconscious mind work on the problem. most likely, you’ll know the answer after one or two good nights’ sleep.

    Specific Business Goals

    Finally, list your specific business goals. Exactly what do you want your business to accomplish for you? Freedom from 9 to 5? money—and if so, how much? more time with the children? making the world or your little part of it a better place? It’s your wish list, so be specific and enjoy writing it.

    How to Use the Self-evaluation Lists?

    After you’ve completed the four self-evaluation lists, spend some time reading them over. Take a moment to compare the skills needed in your business to the list of skills you have. do you have what it takes?

    Show them to your family and, if you’re brave, to your friends or anyone who knows you well and can be objective. of course, before showing the lists to anyone, you may choose to delete any private information that isn’t critical to your business. If you show your lists to someone who knows the tough realities of running a successful small business, so much the better. You may want to find a former teacher, a fellow employee, or someone else whose judgment you respect.

    What do they think? do they point out any obvious inconsistencies between your personality or skills and what you want to accomplish? If so, pay attention. Treat this exercise seriously and you will know yourself better. oh, and don’t destroy your lists. Assuming you go ahead with your business and write your business plan, the lists can serve as background material or even become part of the final plan.

    You have accomplished several things if you have followed these steps. You have looked inside and asked yourself some basic questions about who you are and what you are realistically qualified to do. As a result, you should now have a better idea of whether you are willing to pay the price required to be successful as a small businessperson. If you are still eager to have a business, you have said, “Yes, I am willing to make short-term sacrifices to achieve long-term benefits and to do whatever is necessary—no matter the inconvenience— to reach my goals.”

    Reality Check: Banker’s Analysis

    Banks and institutions that lend money have a lot of knowledge about the success rate of small businesses. Bankers are often overly cautious in making loans to small businesses. For that very reason it makes sense to study their approach, even though it may seem discouraging at first glance.

    Do You Really Want to your Own a Business - Bankers

    Banker’s Ideal

    Bankers look for an ideal loan applicant, who typically meets these requirements:

    • For an existing business, a cash flow sufficient to make the loan payments.
    • For a new business, an owner who has a track record of profitably owning and operating the same sort of business.
    • An owner with a sound, well-thought-out business plan.
    • An owner with financial reserves and personal collateral sufficient to solve the unexpected problems and fluctuations that affect all businesses.

    Why does such a person need a loan, you ask? He or she probably doesn’t, which, of course, is the point. People who lend money are most comfortable with people so close to their ideal loan candidate that they don’t need to borrow. However, to stay in business themselves, banks and other lenders must lend out the money deposited with them. To do this, they must lend to at least some people whose creditworthiness is less than perfect.

    Measuring Up to the Banker’s Ideal

    Who are these ordinary mortals who slip through bankers’ fine screens of approval? And more to the point, how can you qualify as one of them? Your job is to show how your situation is similar to the banker’s ideal.

    A good bet is the person who has worked for, or preferably managed, a successful business in the same field as the proposed new business. For example, if you have profitably run a clothing store for an absentee owner for a year or two, a lender may believe you are ready to do it on your own. All you need is a good location, a sound business plan, and a little capital. Then, watch out Neiman-Marcus!

    Further away from a lender’s ideal is the person who has sound experience managing one type of business, but proposes to start one in a different field. let’s say you ran the most profitable hot dog stand in the Squaw valley ski resort, and now you want to market computer software in the Silicon Valley of California. In your favor is your experience running a successful business. on the negative side is the fact that computer software marketing has

    no relationship to hot dog selling. In this situation, you might be able to get a loan if you hire people who make up for your lack of experience. At the very least, you would need someone with a strong software marketing background, as well as a person with experience managing retail sales and service businesses. naturally, both of those people are most desirable if they have many years of successful experience in the software marketing business, preferably in California.

    Use the Banker’s Ideal

    It’s helpful to use the bankers’ model in your decision-making process. Use a skeptical attitude as a counterweight to your optimism to get a balanced view of your prospects. What is it that makes you think you will be one of the minority of small business owners who will succeed? If you don’t have some specific answers, you are in trouble. most new businesses fail, and the large majority of survivors do not genuinely prosper.

    Many people start their own business because they can’t stand working for others. They don’t have a choice. They must be either boss or bum. They are more than willing to trade security for the chance to call the shots. They meet a good chunk of their goals when they leave their paycheck behind. This is fine as far as it goes, but in my experience, the more successful small business owners have other goals as well.

    A small distributor we know has a well thought-out business and a sound business plan for the future. Still, he believes that his own personal commitment is the most important thing he has going for him. He puts it this way: “I break my tail to live up to the commitments I make to my customers. If a supplier doesn’t perform for me, I’ll still do everything I can to keep my promise to my customer, even if it costs me money.” This sort of personal commitment enables this successful business owner to make short-term adjustments to meet his long-range goals. And while it would be an exaggeration to say he pays this price gladly, he does pay it.

    Note: This article of “Do You Really Want to your Own a Business?” from Internet and book of How to Write a Business Plan, only for share knowledge with help.

  • What is a Business Plan?

    What Is a Business Plan?

    A business plan is a written statement that describes and analyzes your business and gives detailed projections about its future. A business plan also covers the financial aspects of starting or expanding your business—how much money you need and how you’ll pay it back.

    Writing a business plan is a lot of work. So why take the time to write one? The best answer is the wisdom gained by literally millions of business owners just like you. Almost without exception, each business owner with a plan is pleased she has one, and each owner without a plan wishes he had written one.

    Why Write a Business Plan?

    Why Write a Business Plan?
    Why Write a Business Plan?

    Here are some of the specific and immediate benefits you will derive from writing your business plan.

    Helps You Get Money

    most lenders or investors require a written business plan before they will consider your proposal seriously. Even some landlords require a sound business plan before they will lease you space. Before making a commitment to you, they want to see that you have thought through critical issues facing you as a business owner and that you really understand your business. They also want to make sure your business has a good chance of succeeding.

    In my experience, about 35% to 40% of the people currently in business do not know how money flows through their business. Writing a business plan with this book teaches you where money comes from and where it goes. Is it any wonder that your backers want to see your plan before they consider your financial request?

    There are as many potential lenders and investors as there are prospective business owners. If you have a thoroughly thought-out business and financial plan that demonstrates a good likelihood of success and you are persistent, you will find the money you need. of course, it may take longer than you expect and require more work than you expect, but you will ultimately be successful if you believe in your business.

    Helps You Decide to Proceed or Stop

    one major theme of the book may surprise you. It’s as simple as it is important. You, as the prospective business owner, are the most important person you must convince of the soundness of your proposal. Therefore, much of the work you are asked to do here serves a dual purpose. It is designed to provide answers to all the questions that prospective lenders and investors will ask.

    But it will also teach you how money flows through your business, what the strengths and weaknesses in your business concept are, and what your realistic chances of success are.

    The detailed planning process described in this book is not infallible—nothing is in a small business—but it should help you uncover and correct flaws in your business concept. If this analysis demonstrates that your idea won’t work, you’ll be able to avoid starting or expanding your business. This is extremely important. It should go without saying that a great many businesspeople owe their ultimate success to an earlier decision not to start a business with built-in problems.

    Let’s You Improve Your Business Concept

    Writing a plan allows you to see how changing parts of the plan increases profits or accomplishes other goals. You can tinker with individual parts of your business with no cash outlay. If you’re using a computer spreadsheet to make financial projections, you can try out different alternatives even more quickly. This ability to fine-tune your plans and business design increases your chances of success.

    For example, let’s say that your idea is to start a business importing Korean leather jackets. Everything looks great on the first pass through your plan. Then you read an article about the declining exchange ratio of U.S. dollars to Korean currency. After doing some homework about exchange rate fluctuations, you decide to increase your profit margin on the jackets to cover anticipated declines in dollar purchasing power. This change shows you that your prices are still competitive with other jackets and that your average profits will increase. And you are now covered for any likely decline in exchange rates.

    Improves Your Odds of Success

    one way of looking at business is that it’s a gamble. You open or expand a business and gamble you’re and the bank’s or investor’s money. If you’re right, you make a profit and pay back the loans and everyone’s happy. But if your estimate is wrong, you and the bank or investors can lose money and experience the discomfort that comes from failure. (of course, a bank probably is protected because it has title to the collateral you put up to get the loan.)

    Writing a business plan helps beat the odds. most new, small businesses don’t last very long. And, most small businesses don’t have a business plan. Is that only a coincidence, or is there a connection between these two seemingly unconnected facts? my suggestion is this: let someone else prove the connection wrong. Why not be prudent and improve your odds by writing a plan?

    Helps You Keep on Track

    many business owners spend countless hours handling emergencies, simply because they haven’t learned how to plan ahead. This book helps you anticipate problems and solve them before they become disasters.

    A written business plan gives you a clear course toward the future and makes your decision making easier. Some problems and opportunities may represent a change of direction worth following, while others may be distractions that referring to your business plan will enable you to avoid. The black and white of your written business plan will help you face facts if things don’t work out as expected. For example, if you planned to be making a living three months after start-up, and six months later you’re going into the hole at the rate of $100 per day, your business plan should help you see that changes are necessary. It’s all too easy to delude yourself into keeping a business going that will never meet its goals if you approach things with a “just another month or two and I’ll be there” attitude, rather than comparing your results to your goals.

    Issues Beyond the Plan

    I have written this book to provide you with an overview of the issues that determine success or failure in a small business. Experienced lenders, investors, and entrepreneurs want a plan that takes these issues into account. of course, this book can’t cover everything. Here are some of the key business components that are left out of this initial planning process.

    Bookkeeping and Accounting

    This book discusses the numbers and concepts you as the business owner need to open and manage your small business. You have the responsibility to create bookkeeping and accounting systems and make sure they function adequately. One of the items generated by your

    accounting system will be a balance sheet. A balance sheet is a snapshot at a particular moment in time that lists the money value of everything you own and everything you owe to someone else.

    Taxes

    While there are a few mentions of tax issues throughout the book, most of the planning information doesn’t discuss how taxes will be calculated or paid. The book focuses its efforts on making a profit and a positive cash flow. If you make a profit, you’ll pay taxes and if you don’t make a profit, you’ll pay fewer taxes. A cPA or tax advisor can help you with tax strategies.

    Securities Laws

    If you plan to raise money by selling shares in a corporation or limited partnership, you’ll fall under state or federal securities regulations. You can, however, borrow money or take in a general partner without being affected by securities laws. A complete discussion of these issues is beyond the scope of this book. For now, take note that you must comply with securities regulations after you complete your plan and before you take any money into your business from selling shares or partnership interests.

    Your Management Skill

    This book shows you how to write a very good business plan and loan application. However, your ultimate success rests on your ability to implement your plans—on your management skills. If you have any doubts about your management ability, check out the resources other article. Also see another posts for a thought-stimulating discussion of management.

    Issues Specific to Your Business

    How successfully your business relates to the market, the business environment, and the competition may be affected by patents, franchises, foreign competition, location, and the like. of necessity, this book focuses on principles common to all businesses and does not discuss the specific items that distinguish your business from other businesses. For example, this post doesn’t discuss how to price your products to meet your competition; I assume that you have enough knowledge about your chosen business to answer that question.

  • What are Interpersonal Skills and Their Types?

    What are Interpersonal Skills and Their Types?

    This may be the understatement of the year: right now there is an incredible need for engineers. All skill sets and experience levels are in high demand from start-ups to giant corporations, but that doesn’t mean that every engineer will be employed or successful.

    Interpersonal Skills also called Human Relations Skills, Interpersonal skills are often called “People Skills” because they describe a person’s ability to interact with other people in a positive and cooperative manner. Unlike technical skills that people attend school for, interpersonal skills are considered soft skills that are typically developed over time through interactions.

    Having good interpersonal skills is desired in most careers. The best members of a team often have strong skills that help them communicate and problem solve with other people in an organization. There is a long list of interpersonal skills, but among the most important for working in a team or workplace are conflict resolution, communication, problem solving and patience.

    Interpersonal skills in the thriving STEM fields, interpersonal skills are becoming increasingly important in career advancement. They are just as important as the technical skills, as they help create personal branding and a well-rounded network of professionals, opening opportunities and creating relationships with peers. Following are the five key interpersonal skills that engineers and other STEM professionals should develop for career success:

    Interpersonal Skills and Their Types

    (I) Communication Skills: Communication skills are required equally at all three levels of management. A manager must be able to communicate the plans and policies to the workers. Similarly, he must listen and solve the problems of the workers. He must encourage a free-flow of communication in the organization.

    Engineers and other STEM professions place the higher value on technical skills than communication. However, effective communication is equally as important. In order to succeed and be innovative in their position, they must be able to communicate their ideas.

    (II) Creativity Skills: The technical skills to find and fix system issues is just as valuable as the creativity to find new ways to solve problems. People who continually push the envelope to find and develop new products, processes etc., get the recognition from peers and management.

    (III) Adaptability Skills: Like creativity, the ability to continually push and change is invaluable. Challenges arise daily and as an employee and job seeker, you must be able to adapt, be creative, and communicate the issues to work towards a solution.

    The world of work is changing at an ever increasing pace so employers actively seek out graduates who can adapt to changing circumstances and environments, and embrace new ideas, who are enterprising, resourceful and adaptable.

    (IV) Collaboration Skills: Product creation, service execution, and system innovation do not happen by one person. Steve Jobs may have been an incredible driving force behind Apple’s success, but there were countless engineers, developers, and other professionals working to create, market and sell their products.

    Collaborating in a team setting is not only necessary for a job seeker and employee, but is absolutely essential. Collaborative skills that we have identified as promoting the core concepts and supporting class norms are listed below. This list of collaborative skills has been used successfully by instructional teams to identify skills that address the ways students and teachers should interact to realize class norms. The list is not exhaustive and some classrooms may have to add skills to fully meet their needs.

    (V) Leadership Skills: Leadership skills is the ability to influence human behavior. A manager requires leadership skills to motivate the workers. These skills help the Manager to get the work done through the workers.

    We all know what a leader is, however becoming one takes thought. If you aspire to make a difference in your company/ city/ the world in any profession, leadership skills have to come into play. Developing these skills over time as you build relationships will help you achieve success beyond your career.

    Advanced Interpersonal Skills

    Interpersonal Skills
    Human Relations Skills or Interpersonal Skills

    Advanced Interpersonal Communication training sessions can be custom designed to suit your employees, address specific issues and industry. Pictures, questions, and material will all be modified to suit training requirements and objectives. Contact our staff for more details.

    This Advanced Interpersonal Skills Session is designed to help your team members, management, and all staff communicate effectively with respect, build rapport, interact professionally and control their emotions for better business relations.

    Objectives for the Advanced Interpersonal Skills

    Being in control of your emotion is a benefit to you and your workplace. Learn how to be able to change your mood, attitude, and perception at the drop of a hat.

    Questioning techniques will assist you in both control and information gathering. Learn how to quickly change a subject, motivate others and communicate more effectively using communication techniques.

    Rapport is about similarities and connections. We show participants how to connect with others more with simple and effective mirroring techniques.

    Reading body language will come in use throughout your life. We develop this area and discuss how participants can take advantage of this form of communication.

    A positive mindset will move mountains. Everything will seem easier and you will feel empowerment with a positive outlook. Learn how to create the mindset for optimum performance and feel great when you need.

    More behavioral tools for the participants here as we develop some techniques to improve on existing behavior.

    learn about the four social categories and how to improve on your social category if you feel you need. We also discuss personalities and provide insight into why you do many of the things you do. This section also teaches you about others and their needs around you in the workplace.

    Advanced Interpersonal Communications are a requirement today to work closely as teams and with other people. This session is designed to carefully address any areas of concern and help individuals increase their awareness of their interpersonal skills, including any unintended communications they may be making. This session provides a greater understanding of non-spoken communication and allows a much-improved level of interpersonal communications to be implemented in the company, improving management to staff and interdepartmental relationships, which also leads to greater productivity, happier staff, and a much higher standard of customer service provision.

  • What are Managerial Skills?

    What are Managerial Skills?

    Managerial Skills; A skill is an individual’s ability to translate knowledge into action. Hence, it is manifested in an individual’s performance. Skill is not necessarily inborn. It can be developed through practice and through relating learning to one’s own personal experience and background. In order to be able to successfully discharge his roles, a manager should possess three major skills. These are conceptual skill, human relations skill and technical skill. Conceptual skill deals with ideas, technical skill with things and human skill with people. While both conceptual and technical skills are needed for good decision-making, human skill in necessary for a good leader.

    The conceptual skill refers to the ability of a manager to take a broad and farsighted view of the organization and its future, his ability to think in abstract, his ability to analyze the forces working in a situation, his creative and innovative ability and his ability to assess the environment and the changes taking place in it. It short, it is his ability to conceptualize the environment, the organization, and his own job, so that he can set appropriate goals for his organization, for himself and for his team. This skill seems to increase in importance as manager moves up to higher positions of responsibility in the organization.

    The technical skill is the manager’s understanding of the nature of the job that people under him have to perform. It refers to a person’s knowledge and proficiency in any type of process or technique. In a production department, this would mean an understanding of the technicalities of the process of production. Whereas this type of skill and competence seems to be more important at the lower levels of management, its relative importance as a part of the managerial role diminishes as the manager moves to higher positions. In higher functional positions, such as the position of a marketing manager or production manager, the conceptual component, related to these functional areas becomes more important and the technical component becomes less important.

    Human relations skill is the ability to interact effectively with people at all levels. This skill develops in the manager sufficient ability (A) to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others; (B) to judge the possible actions to, and outcomes of various courses of action he may undertake; and (C) to examine his own concepts and values which may enable him to develop more useful attitudes about himself. This type of skill remains consistently important for managers at all levels.

    A table gives an idea about the required change in the skill-mix of a manager with the change in his level. At the top level, technical skill becomes least important. That is why people at the top shift with great ease from one industry to another without an apparent fall in their efficiency. Their human and conceptual skills seem to make up for their unfamiliarity with the new job’s technical aspects.

    A Table of Skill-Mix of different Management levels and Managerial Skills

    Different Management levels

    Explanation of Managerial Skills

    (I) Conceptual skills: Conceptual skills are skills that allow a person to think creatively while also understanding abstract ideas and complicated processes. A person who has conceptual skills will be able to solve problems, formulate processes and understand the relationship between ideas, concepts, patterns and symbols.

    Conceptual skills are used frequently in the business world where managers can use their ability to conceptualize to view and visualize the entire company that they work for in order to develop the best plans for the business’s success. Most companies consider conceptual skills to be a requirement for their management staff.

    Conceptual Skills
    Conceptual Skills

    Some people are born with conceptual skills and have an intuitive sense while others must acquire the skill through learning. Other common skills valued with conceptual thinking include critical thinking, implementation thinking, innovative thinking and intuitive thinking.

    For those individuals who are not born with an innate sense of these skills, there are ways to develop the skill set. In an individual’s personal life and professional life, these skills can be developed by first taking the time to look around. Observing the way that other people and other businesses implement strategies as well as reading related publications (in the individual’s field or hobby area) can help increase the range of possibilities a person sees. Then, an individual must be willing to change direction and to pursue new goals whenever an opportunity arises that makes sense. If a problem occurs, do not look for the simple and fast fix. Look for a lasting solution instead that is a best-case scenario.

    (II) Human Relations Skills: Human Relations Skills is Interpersonal skills, Interpersonal skills are often called “people skills” because they describe a person’s ability to interact with other people in a positive and cooperative manner. Unlike technical skills that people attend school for, interpersonal skills are considered soft skills that are typically developed over time through interactions.

    Interpersonal Skills
    Human Relations Skills or Interpersonal Skills

    Having good interpersonal skills is desired in most careers. The best members of a team often have strong skills that help them communicate and problem solve with other people in an organization. There is a long list of interpersonal skills, but among the most important for working in a team or workplace are conflict resolution, communication, problem solving and patience.

    (III) Technical Skills: Technical skills are a person’s abilities that contribute directly to the performance of a given job, such as the computer, engineering, language and electrical skills. Someone with excellent abilities in any of these technical areas has the potential to secure a career in a related field.

    Technical Skills
    Technical Skills

    A person with technical writing abilities may get a job creating instruction manuals for complex products and equipment. A data expert may get a specialized job in database management or data analysis. A person with crafting abilities may get a job assembling fabrics or other products. Someone with excellent skills in automobile mechanics may get a position in an automobile repair shop.

    Other Managerial Skills also Important

    Communication Skills: Communication skills are required equally at all three levels of management. A manager must be able to communicate the plans and policies to the workers. Similarly, he must listen and solve the problems of the workers. He must encourage a free-flow of communication in the organization.

    Administrative Skills: Administrative skills are required at the top-level management. The top-level managers should know how to make plans and policies. They should also know how to get the work done. They should be able to coordinate different activities of the organization. They should also be able to control the full organization.

    Leadership Skills: Leadership skill is the ability to influence human behavior. A manager requires leadership skills to motivate the workers. These skills help the Manager to get the work done through the workers.

    Problem Solving Skills: Problem-solving skills are also called as Design skills. A manager should know how to identify a problem. He should also possess an ability to find the best solution for solving any specific problem. This requires intelligence, experience and up-to-date knowledge of the latest developments.

    Decision Making Skills: Decision-making skills are required at all levels of management. However, it is required more at the top-level of management. A manager must be able to take quick and correct decisions. He must also be able to implement his decision wisely. The success or failure of a manager depends upon the correctness of his decisions.

  • What are Managerial Roles and His Job?

    What are Managerial Roles and His Job?

    Management performs the functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling for the accomplishment of organizational goals. Any person who performs these functions is a manager. The first line manager or supervisor or foreman is also a manager because he performs these functions. The difference between the functions of top, middle and lowest level management is that of degree. For instance, top management concentrates more on long-range planning and organization, middle-level management concentrates more on coordination and control and lowest level management concentrates more on direction function to get the things done from the workers.

    Every manager is concerned with ideas, things, and people. Management is a creative process for integrating the use of resources to accomplish certain goals. In this process, ideas, things, and people are vital inputs which are to be transformed into output consistent with the goals.

    Management of ideas implies the use of conceptual skills. It has three connotations. First, it refers to the need for the practical philosophy of management to regard management as a distinct and scientific process. Second, management of ideas refers to the planning phase of the management process. Lastly, management of ideas refers to distinction and innovation. Creativity refers to a generation of new ideas, and innovation refers to transforming ideas into viable relations and utilities. A manager must be imaginative to plan ahead and to create new Ideas.

    Management of things (non-human resources) deal with the design of production system, and acquisition, allocation, and conversion of physical resources to achieve certain goals. Management of people is concerned with procurement, development, maintenance and integration of human resources in the organization. Every manager has to direct his subordinates to put the organizational plans into practice.

    The greater part of every manager’s time is spent in communicating and dealing with people. His efforts are directed towards obtaining information and evaluating progress towards objectives set by him and then taking corrective action. Thus, a manager’s job primarily consists of management of people. Though it is his duty to handle all the productive resources, but the human factor is more important. A manager cannot convert the raw materials into finished products himself; he has to take the help of others to do this. The greatest problem before any manager is how to manage the personnel to get the best possible results. The manager in the present age has to deal efficiently with the people who are to contribute to the achievement of organizational goals.

    Peter F. Drucker has advocated that the managerial approach to handling workers and work should be pragmatic and dynamic. Every job should be designed as an integrated set of operations. The workers should be given a sufficient measure of freedom to organize and control their work environment. It is the duty of every manager to educate, train and develop people below him so that they may use their potentialities and abilities to perform the work allotted to them. He has also to help them in satisfying their needs and working under him, he must provide them with the proper environment. A manager must create a climate which brings in and maintains satisfaction and discipline among the people. This will increase organizational effectiveness.

    Recently, it has been questioned whether planning, organizing, directing and controlling provides an adequate description of the management process. After an intensive observation of what five top executives actually did during the course of a few days at work, Henry Mintzberg concluded that these labels do not adequately capture the reality of what managers do. He suggested instead that the manager should be regarded as playing some ten different roles, in no particular order.

    Role Performed by Managers

    What is Role Performed by Managers? Mostly manager has used three types roles on company or business: 1) Interpersonal Roles as used by heart, 2) Informational Roles also used by talking, and 3) Decisional Roles is mostly used by the brain. Following roles are explained here;

    Managerial Roles
    Managerial Role is three types of company or business; 1) Interpersonal Roles as used by heart, 2) Informational Roles also used by talking, and 3) Decisional Roles is mostly used by the brain.

    1. Interpersonal Roles

    Figurehead: In this role, every manager has to perform some duties of a ceremonial nature, such as greeting the touring dignitaries, attending the wedding of an employee, taking an important customer to lunch and so on.

    Leader: As a leader, every manager must motivate and encourage his employees. He must also try to reconcile their individual needs with the goals of the organization.

    Liaison: In this role of liaison, every manager must cultivate contacts outside his vertical chain of command to collect information useful for his organization.

    1. Informational Roles

    Monitor: As the monitor, the manager has to perpetually scan his environment for information, interrogate his liaison contacts and his subordinates, and receive unsolicited information, much of it as result of the network of personal contacts he has developed.

    Disseminator: In the role of a disseminator, the manager passes some of his privileged information directly to his subordinates who would otherwise have no access to it.

    Spokesman: In this role, the manager informs and satisfies various groups and people who influence his organization. Thus, he advises shareholders about financial performance, assures consumer groups that the organization is fulfilling its social responsibilities and satisfies the government that the origination is abiding by the law.

    1. Decisional Roles

    Entrepreneur: In this role, the manager constantly looks out for new ideas and seeks to improve his unit by adapting it to changing conditions in the environment.

    Disturbance Handler: In this role, the manager has to work like a firefighter. He must seek solutions to various unanticipated problems – a strike may loom large a major customer may go bankrupt; a supplier may renege on his contract, and so on.

    Resource Allocator: In this role, the manager must divide work and delegate authority among his subordinates. He must decide who will get what.

    Negotiator: The manager has to spend considerable time in negotiations. Thus, the chairman of a company may negotiate with the union leaders a new strike issue, the foreman may negotiate with the workers a grievance problem, and so on.

    In addition, managers in any organization work with each other to establish the organization’s long-range goals and to plan how to achieve them. They also work together to provide one another with the accurate information needed to perform tasks. Thus, managers act as channels of communication with the organization.