Tag: Research

Best Research Paper of Wind Energy Generation Systems PDF
Wind Energy Generation Systems PDF – 5 Best Research Paper, Wind power generation is power generation that converts wind energy into electric energy, power generation systems in PDF. Also, The wind creating set ingests wind energy with an uncommonly planned sharp edge and converts wind energy to mechanical energy, which further drives the generator to pivot and understands the transformation of wind energy to electric energy.

Here is the article to explain, 5 top Authors’ researchers and their Best Research Paper on Wind Energy Generation Systems PDF.

The generally utilized wind power or energy generation systems incorporate the direct-determined wind power producing set and the twofold taken care of wind power creating set; the direct-determined wind power creating set associate with the matrix through a full force converter; while the twofold taken care of wind power producing set associate with the framework through a twofold taken care of converter.

Wind power generation, which can change over the motor energy of wind into electric energy without genuine ecological harm, views as perhaps the most encouraging disseminated energy assets on the planet. Generally, modest establishment cost speeds up the establishment of wind power generation on the planet.

There are numerous puts on the earth where the wind consistently presents. As the wind is normally accessible mechanical energy, we can utilize this wind to turn generators to deliver power. Essentially producing power by turning generators with the assistance of wind knows as wind energy power generation or basically wind power generation or wind power generation.

Wind Energy Electricity Generation System:

The wind is a perfect wellspring of energy. It has no impact on the nursery in the climate. It subs for non-renewable energy sources like coal, petrol and flammable gas, and so forth even though coal, petrol, and flammable gas, and so on are the essential wellspring of fuel for delivering power, the accessibility of such petroleum product restrict.

Around the world, 67% of power creates from petroleum products, 13% from thermal power, and the remainder of 20% from sustainable power sources, for example, hydro energy, sunlight based energy, wind energy, flowing energy, and so forth So we perceive how much the world relies upon petroleum derivative for creating power and that is the reason we center around wind and other sustainable power sources to produce power to defeat the reliance on petroleum products.

The running expense of creating power with wind energy is very low. When the turbines introduce, and there is no much upkeep need for quite a while. The wind energy power generation framework takes some land for the establishment, however, we can utilize the vast majority of the land for development. So land is definitely not a major issue for wind turbine creating systems. As a rule, wind plants introduce decent tallness to acquire adequate wind to create power.

More thing of power systems;

It is currently the quickest developing power asset on the planet. One single wind turbine will most likely be unable to create the ideal degree of power. Thus, the number of wind turbines associates with getting the ideal yield. Also, This gathering of wind turbines together knows as a wind ranch. We should pick the spot for building a wind ranch where the wind speed is adequate to move the edge of the turbine. At the point when the wind blows through the sharp edges of a turbine, the turbine turns to run a generator to create power.

Also, This power streams down through the link connected to the turbine tower. This link additionally interconnects with links from other wind turbines in the wind ranch. Consequently, power from all wind turbines goes to a typical hub from where it takes for additional closures. All things considered, this power utilizes straightforwardly for homegrown or mechanical burden or attract by any framework to satisfy the prerequisite of power.

Qualities, Features, and Characteristics of Annual Distribution of Wind Power Generation:

Wind power generation in Jiuquan Wind Power Base has the accompanying qualities, features, characteristics:
- This territory has rich wind assets all year. As per the information gathered in Qiaowan, Ganhekou, Changma, and Beidaqiao wind estimation poles in Jiuquan; the everyday normal wind speed all year is over 3 m/s. Also, The number of days with the day-by-day normal wind speed at 3 m/s or more records for 51% of the entire year; the number of days with the day-by-day normal wind speed at 13 m/s or more records for 5% of the entire year.
- Wind speed is profoundly occasional. The normal wind speed between March and May in Jiuquan is very high; while the normal wind speed between October and the next February is very low.
- Also, Wind speed varies pointedly. In Qiaowan, Ganhekou, Changma, and Beidaqiao consistently, and most days in a year the wind speed will vary between moving toward nothing and evaluated wind speed.
5 Best Research Paper of Wind Energy Generation Systems PDF by Author;

The following 5 best creator gives their best research paper of the Wind Energy Generation Systems in PDF below are;

Hybrid Power Generation System Using Wind Energy and Solar Energy by Ashish S. Ingole, Prof. Bhushan S. Rakhonde:

Now a day’s electricity is the most needed facility for human beings. All the conventional energy resources are depleting day by day. So we have to shift from conventional to non-conventional energy resources. In this, the combination of two energy resources is taking place i.e. wind and solar energy. Also, This process reviles sustainable energy resources without damaging nature. We can give uninterrupted power by using a hybrid energy system.

Basically, this system involves the integration of two energy systems that will give continuous power. Solar panels are used for converting solar energy and wind turbines use for converting wind energy into electricity. Also, This electrical power can utilize for various purposes. The generation of electricity will take place at an affordable cost. This paper deals with the generation of electricity by using two sources combine; which leads to generating electricity with affordable cost without damaging the natural balance…more read 4 pages in PDF.

Wind Energy Systems; This paper reviews application of power electronics in wind energy systems. By Frede Blaabjerg, Fellow IEEE, and Ke MA, Member IEEE.

Wind power now represents a major and growing source of renewable energy. Large wind turbines (with capacities of up to 6Ð8 MW) widely install in power distribution networks. Increasing numbers of onshore and offshore wind farms; acting as power plants, connect directly to power transmission networks at the scale of hundreds of megawatts. As its level of the grid, penetration has begun to increase dramatically; wind power is starting to have a significant impact on the operation of the modern grid system. Advanced power electronics technologies are being introduced to improve the characteristics of wind turbines; and, make them more suitable for integration into the power grid.

Meanwhile, some emerging challenges still need to be addressed. This paper provides an overview and discusses some trends in the power electronics technologies used for wind power generation. First, the state-of-the-art technology and global market generally discuss. Several important wind turbine concepts discuss; along with power electronics solutions either for individual wind turbines or for entire wind farms. Some technology challenges and future solutions for power electronics in wind turbine systems are also addressed…more read 16 pages in PDF.

Wind Power Generation Technology, by Mrs. N.V. Vader and Mrs. V.A. Joshi:

The paper deals with the technical details involved in the generation of power through wind technology. Also, It discusses the factors responsible for the generation of wind power and the limitations of the generator. While the emphasis is given on the various schemes used for the production of electricity using wind power; the paper also gives insight into energy storage methods, safety precautions, and site selection criteria…more read 10 pages in PDF.

Wind Energy Technology: Current Status and R&D Future, by Robert Thresher, Michael Robinson, and Paul Veers:

Wind energy is one of the fastest-growing electrical energy sources in the United States. The United States installed over 5,200 MW in 2007; and, experts are forecasting for as much to be installed in 2008. The United States cumulative installed capacity as of Dec. 31, 2007, was 16, 596 MW. Wind turbines have evolved rapidly over the past 20 years; and, the turbines have grown in size from 100 kW in the early 1980s to over 2.5 MW today.

The evolution of wind technology is expected to continue over the next two decades resulting in a continued improvement in reliability and energy capture with a modest decrease in cost. Also, The development of new and innovative rotors, drive systems, towers, and controls is expected to enable this continued improvement in the cost-effectiveness of wind technology. Wind energy can supply 20% of the United States’ electricity needs by 2030; and, will be a significant contributor to the world’s electricity supply…more read 32 pages in PDF.

Wind Energy: A Review Paper, by Atul Kumar and Muhammad Zafar Ullah Khan:

This review paper examined the outline of wind innovation, where the approach depends on standards and down-to-earth executions. Wind vitality is the second biggest wellspring of sustainable power sources after hydropower. It is incredibly reasonable, yet it is discontinuous. Even though the abuse of twist goes back a few centuries; the cutting-edge wind vitality industry started amid the oil emergency of the seventies. Most these days wind turbines are onshore; however others are fabricated seaward, more often than not in wind ranches. Since wind vitality is discontinuous, it must be upheld by different wellsprings of power. Wind vitality can be productive as a rule. However, it has not yet accomplished full matrix equality with fossil vitality sources…more read 8 pages in PDF.

5 Best Research Paper of Wind Energy Generation Systems PDF; Image from Pixabay.
April 24, 2021
Rural Marketing: Meaning, Areas, Features, and Importance
Introduction to Rural Marketing Research: It has involved extraordinary requests both for the marketing scholastics and specialists whether there is a requirement for creating separate techniques for rural markets. Rural marketing research also defines as their Introduction, Meaning, Definition, Areas, Characteristics or Attributes or Highlights or Features, Need or Significance or Importance. How to position Global Marketing in rural marketing? Rural marketing is a gathering of the create item, sensible cost, suitable setting, and right mindfulness.

Here is the article to explain, Rural Marketing Research – Introduction, Meaning, Definition, Areas, Characteristics or Attributes or Highlights or Features, Need or Significance or Importance.

Meaning of Rural Marketing: The marketing decides states that the correct item, at the correct cost, at the opportune spot, at the perfect time, through the correct medium should arrive at the correct client. Also, Marketing might depict as the way toward characterizing, envisioning, and knowing client needs and dealing with all the assets of the association to fulfill them.

The fulfillment of client’s needs and needs gives the presence to the association. The purchaser’s conduct contains the demonstrations, procedures, and social connections appeared by people, gatherings, and associations with items and administrations. Information and comprehension of the thought processes of purchaser conduct help an association in looking for better and progressively powerful approaches to fulfill the customers.

It assists with choosing suitable deals and publicizing procedures to design marketing programs in an increasingly proficient way. The rural market of India began indicating its potential from the 1960s, their research; and, the ’70s and ’80s demonstrated its consistent turn of events, research paper. During the ’90s, there was a consistent development of the buying intensity of rural India; and there are clear signs that the 21st century is going to see its full blooming.

Definition of Rural Marketing:

The investigation of Rural marketing contains every one of the tasks, research paper pdf file, and the offices leading them, associated with the development of ranch created food, crude materials, and their subordinates, like materials, from the homesteads to the last buyers, and the impacts of such procedure on makers, go-betweens, and purchasers.

According to G.N. Murthy;

“Rural marketing is the study of all the activity, agency and policy involved in the procurement of farm inputs by the farmers and the movement of rural products from farmers to consumers.”

According to National Commission on Agriculture are;

“Rural Marketing is a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all the aspects of market structure or system, both functional & institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and post-harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation, and distribution.”

So we reason that rural marketing in basic words is the arranging and execution of the marketing capacities for rural areas, you may download their research paper ppt and pdf file.

Areas of Rural Marketing:

How to run a Rural Marketing campaign? To run a rural marketing effort, you can do the trading of labor and products in three distinct manners and they are-Rural to Rural, Urban to Rural, and Rural to Urban. In this way, to run a Rural Marketing Campaign, you can decide on these three distinct ways. Allow us to talk about Rural Marketing research areas three in detail;

Rural to Rural:

This sort of rural marketing comes to set up when rural makers make items for rural buyers or locals. In this sort of marketing, various kinds of items utilize are trucks, cows, ceramics, and so on

Metropolitan (Urban) to Rural:

In this sort of rural marketing, items produce in urban communities or metropolitan units make available to the rural market base. Various items that come in this class are buyer durables, FMCG, manures, and so on Rural marketing utilize for augmenting the compass and changes of these items to a rural section of target crowds.

Rural to Urban:

Such rural marketing is utilized when items that are developed or fabricated are offered to the metropolitan market. Various items contained in this class are crops, handicraft things, horticultural items, and so on This sort of marketing is likewise very valuable in boosting the monetary standards of the rural populace by assisting them with getting worth and market for their products, and advocating their abilities.

Rural Marketing Wrap Up;

Albeit (Although) rural areas have a ton of possibilities to come up as the new modern center, countless difficulties accompany it also. Yet, with an appropriate rural marketing methodology, a portion of these issues can be managed. Winning the rural market is vital in augmenting the devoted client base, leads, deals, and benefits.

This will likewise help organizations in having a network among rural and metropolitan areas. Also, This network is the most basic factor of comprehensive development which will guarantee a feasible presence to the organizations. How significant do you consider rural marketing procedures for your business? Offer your perspectives about the meaning of rural marketing efforts with us in the remarks.

Characteristics or attributes or highlights or features of Rural Marketing:

To zero in on the rural market and to create successful methodologies for tapping the market capability of the Rural Market, the organizations should know the features of the rural marketing research, which are depicted as follows:

Huge, Diverse, and Scattered Market:

The rural market in India is enormous and dispersed into a few districts. It comprises roughly 78 crores of rural shoppers who live in 6.50 lakh towns spread more than 35 lakh square kilometer territory. It is dissipated and far-reaching over 6.40 lakh towns, dissimilar to the metropolitan market kept to a handful of metros, cosmopolitan urban areas, and towns. Covering, a huge and generally dissipated topographical market, described by less populace per settlement, raises the stock and transportation cost and in this way influences the suitability of the course plan tasks of the circulation framework in rural areas.

Significant Income of Rural Consumers is from Agriculture:

Rural success attaches to agrarian flourishing. A significant piece of the pay of rural individuals comes from farming. In case of harvest disappointment, the pay of rural masses is straightforwardly influenced. In any case, the new past has seen a slow decrease in the sole reliance on agribusiness, as different areas have begun assuming a huge part in the rural economy.

Low Standard of Living:

The rural populace is utilized in limited scope rural and related occupations. This instability factor on account of rural pay makes the rural buyers very aware of their buy conduct as they are not certain about their future income. Most of the rural populace lives underneath the destitution line and has a low proficiency rate, low per capita pay, social backwardness, and so forth

Added to this the customs, strict pressing factors, social qualities, and profound established notions are the obstructing factors for upward friendly versatility. Also, The flourishing to put something aside for future exigencies causes rural individuals to spend less to improve their standard of living in any event when they have decent pay.

Conventional Outlook:

Towns grow gradually and have a conventional standpoint. Change is a consistent cycle yet most rural individuals acknowledge changes slowly. They for the most part oppose change. This is step by step changing because of proficiency particularly in the adolescent who has started to change the standpoint in the towns.

Foundation Facilities:

The lacking foundation is the absolute most significant factor that recognizes metropolitan and rural business sectors. Also, The framework offices like solidified streets, stockrooms, correspondence frameworks, and monetary offices are insufficient in rural areas. Advancement and actual dissemination along these lines become extremely troublesome in the rural areas on account of deficient infrastructural offices; which has expanded the extent of rural marketing.

Market Growth:

The rural market is developing consistently throughout the long term. Demand for customary items, like bikes, rural data sources, FMCG Products, and so forth has additionally developed throughout the long term. The development has not been just quantitative yet also subjective.

This was the aftereffect of new work openings and new types of the revenue made accessible through rural advancement programs; which have brought about green and white unrests and upheaval in rising assumptions for rural masses. Also, Demand for items like bikes, agrarian sources of info, ranch items, and so forth, has additionally developed throughout the long term. This outcome in the expanding the capability of rural areas.

Different Socio-Economic Background:

Because of the scattering of geological areas and lopsided land ripeness, rural individuals have a different financial foundation; which eventually influences the rural market. Residents have a place with various religions, societies, and gatherings of people. Socio-social foundation impacts shopper ability to acknowledge developments and new items in various areas.

The varieties in conduct because of buyer climate geological, occupation, demographical and social, impact the way of life and make through and through various arrangements of requirements in various areas. This makes the need to portion the rural market to take into account it viably and productivity.

Education around there:

The education rate is low in rural areas when contrasted with metropolitan areas; and, prompts the issue of correspondence for advancement purposes. With low proficiency rates, the print medium gets wasteful; and, to a degree immaterial in rural areas since its span is poor. The reliance is more on electronic media – film, radio, and TV however the rural proficiency level has improved in the rural past.

Rural individuals have begun to go to metropolitan areas for advanced education. Indeed, even the public authority has presented different plans for rural schooling. Mindfulness has expanded and the ranchers are very much educated about their general surroundings. They are likewise instructing themselves on the innovation around them and yearning for a superior way of life.

Buying Capacity:

The buying force of individuals in rural areas is reliant upon a few immediate; and, roundabout components identified with the rural economy. Marketing rural excess and rural–metropolitan terms of exchange are the primary wellsprings of buying power for rural buyers. Generally, Indian horticulture is subject to precipitation.

Subsequently, the rural demand for buyer products is by implication impact by precipitation. This outcome is the insufficient buying force of the rural customers. Yet, presently day’s buying influence of the rural individuals is expanding; because the public authority spends immense measures of cash on the water system, flood control, framework advancement, hostile to destitution plans, endowments, and so on

Thusly, advertisers are keen on building up the market in rural areas. Media has arrived in rural areas; so it turns out to be simple for advertisers to sell items in rural areas. Advertisers have understood the capability of rural business sectors and in this manner are expanding their activities in Rural India.

Need or Significance or Importance of Rural Marketing:

Numerous organizations having great assembling offices and marketing aptitude are zeroing in on rural business sectors; as there are freedoms to showcase customer labor and products in rural areas; and, likewise market agrarian items in metropolitan business sectors.

Developing Rural Market:

Aside from rural contributions, there is a developing business sector for customer merchandise in rural areas. As indicated by NCAER, the rural buyers address more than 50% of India’s “burning-through classes”; and, structure the objective gathering for customer labor and products.

Extreme Competition in Major Urban Markets:

Concentrated rivalry in the metropolitan market has expanded expenses yet not a high piece of the pie and benefits. Numerous organizations have taken a lead in setting up their items in rural business sectors. Model – HUL, Colgate, Marico, Nirma, LG Electronics.

To Change the Attitude of the Farmers with the goal that they will Treat Agriculture as a Business:

Generally, ranchers have regarded agribusiness as a method of living and they delivered barely enough amounts to meet their family necessities. Numerous reformist ranchers have expanded the yields of harvests by following present-day horticultural practices. Indeed, even little ranchers will urge to build creation. At the point when agribusiness is very much evolved; the pay of ranchers will go up because of a highly attractive excess. This gives great demand to modern and shopper merchandise.

Rural Marketing Creates Employment Opportunities:

Broadening of farming, advancement of town-level ventures, and marketing of present-day labor and products give business openings.

Models:
- The Government is wanting to set up a chain of expert establishments in rural areas on a public-private association premise to deliver gifted laborers for the car business. The Ministry of Rural Development has likewise preferred the proposition and has offered to expand monetary and other help. The foundations might be like the current Industrial Training Institutes.
- Due to the high wearing down rate and the developing expense of HR, numerous BPO organizations are moving to the hinterland looking for less expensive and steadfast ability pools. Indeed, even programming firms are setting up focuses in more modest towns. In rural areas, compensations will be up to 50 percent lower than in urban communities, and land around multiple times more affordable, bringing about cost intensity.
- As insurance agencies go increasingly more rural looking for business, there will be open doors in the rural area. The individuals who understand rural India will be in demand.
Rural Tourism:

Incorporates a scope of exercises, administrations, and conveniences given by rural individuals to vacationers. The expansive areas covered are social and ranch the travel industry, nature occasions, and visiting in rural areas. Town way of life and conventional neighborliness are different attractions for sightseers. Numerous metropolitan individuals would select rural the travel industry since it gives a chance to return to roots (towns) and be away from the pressing factor of metropolitan life. The rural travel industry creates business openings and expansions in pay for townspeople. Additionally, rural occasions empower the youthful metropolitan populace to encounter rural life.

Models:
- Winners in Maharashtra have started wine the travel industry. Having wine in the travel industry is to have guests stay in the winery; see the grape plantation and get a vibe of the wine-production measure. This will likewise permit savoring the beverage.
- Rajasthan has been introduced as an objective with fortifications, castles, sandstones, works of art, ceramics, town specialties, and local area diversion.
- Kushti (Wrestling) Carnival in Kundal (Sangli District, Maharashtra) pulls in near two lakh individuals.
- Jallikattu (restraining of the bull) led during the gather celebration of Pongal has become a piece of the travel industry bundle of Tamil Nadu.
- Purushwadi, a town arranged 180 km. from Mumbai has become a place of interest because of the endeavors of “Grass Routes” an association that is advancing town the travel industry. Begun in 2006, more than 60 families invite visitors to remain with them and experience town life and visiting slope sanctuaries, traveling, chipping away at ranches, washing in the stream, and so on
More than 70 Percent of the Country’s Population Live in Rural Areas:

With an exceptionally enormous shopper base, rural business sectors have huge potential, and organizations predict the rural business sectors as the business sectors of tomorrow. The working-class section is metropolitan India, which is now all around adjusted. Nonetheless, the rural business sectors are ineffectively adjusted about banking, protection, essential medical services, schooling, and lodging. Additionally, the entrance of four-wheelers, coolers, Color TV, and so on, is low in rural areas and there are enormous freedoms for inventive advertisers.

Brand Loyalty:

Because of low pay, most of the rural customers are cost cognizant. Be that as it may, they will keep on belittling a brand whenever they are happy with the item. Model – Parle Biscuits keep on being famous over neighborhood brands.

Unfamiliar Competition:

Unfamiliar organizations who are entering the Indian market, regularly, center around metropolitan shoppers. Consequently, there is less rivalry in rural business sectors.

Improvement of Regional TV Network:

Has empowered the advertisers to pass on the messages about items and administrations to the rural populace.

Models:
- In the class of rolls, Britannia dispatched the Tiger brand considering kids. The rolls focused on youngsters with the slogan ‘Tiger Khao, Kuch ban ke dikha o’.
- The more youthful town age has significant openness to different media over the prior age, and, they like to copy their metropolitan partners. Kids assume a significant part in affecting buy choices in rural areas.
Importance of Exploring Niche Marketing for Rural Markets!

Specialties structure a little however beneficial base of portions to which items and brands and the ‘blast’ made by the customer blast; advertisers are investigating approaches to benefit from ‘specialty’ on the lookout.

“Bird” cleanser of Hindustan Lever and “Colgate Total” from Colgate Palmolive mirror the importance of specialty systems in the Indian setting. Specialty methodologies could be inventively figured by consolidating a few marketing blend components; which may speak to the rural market in India.

In a nation like India where the client blast has been entered the rural market; specialty marketing could be an out-and-out various and interesting activity. Given the social variety across the length and expansiveness of the country; specialty marketing could offer a gigantic measure of potential in the rural market.

More Things:

Practically all items and administrations could be reformulated with a marketing blend in which the importance given to the components could change following the segment and psychographic profiles of rural customers.

A branded espresso may require inside and out an alternate promoting topic. It might utilize the invigorating part of caffeine to situate itself. Enfield has exhibited how promoting could be utilized to seek after a specialty; so additionally Coca Cola with film VIP Amir Khan.

The previous passed on the toughness of a bike to withstand rural and conditions. Up-market items which have cut a specialty for themselves in metropolitan areas may go through the adjustment to be situated in the rural business sectors. Soda pops, quick food sources, and kitchen applications; and, so on may get an ‘unmistakable flavor’ to get a ‘rural specialty’.

Rural Marketing Research – Introduction, Meaning, Definition, Areas, Characteristics or Attributes or Highlights or Features, Need or Significance or Importance; Image from Pixabay.
April 23, 2021
#1 Popular Helpful App Types free and paid for Every Writer
#1 Popular Helpful App Types for Every Writer; The modern writing and cutting-edge composing world is a lot of a gift and a revile. From one perspective, writers have more obligations than any other time. Every Writer needs #1 Popular Helpful App to develop their writing skills; Exploration, research, writing, showcasing, marketing for money – there is a lot of undertakings to perform, abilities to master, and plates to continue to turn.

#1 Popular Helpful App Types list free and paid for Every Writer in 2021.

On the other, there are a greater number of chances and apparatuses accessible than anytime ever. Individuals around the planet can get by as a writer and can utilize cutting edge innovation in the quest for their most profound dreams. That is something to celebrate. Do you like to publish your own article online; Here is the #1 Best free Blog sites: WordPress, Blogger, Wix, Ghost, Weebly. You also publish to us Create Articles! In case you’re getting a handle on focused or down because of your composing obligations, here are three types of apparatuses to relieve your burden and make life more reasonable. The following #1 Popular Helpful App Types for Every Writer below are;

Research and Exploration:

Has there at any point been a more significant chance to explore your composition? Regardless of the event that you make online substance, or compose books, exploration can represent the deciding moment your undertaking.

There’s such a bounty of working out there that careful examination is probably the most ideal approach to make your work stand out, help its believability, and increment the worth it gives to the individuals who read it. For writers who experienced childhood in the age of the web, it’s difficult to envision how extreme things used to be. The chances are to discover quality information and utilize it recorded as a hard copy project, which was much more restricted.

On the off chance that you need to benefit as much as possible from the gift that is the advanced exploration climate, here are a couple of apparatuses that can assist.

Research list:
- Wolfram Alpha; Now and again, you need realities, dependable realities, and only current realities. On the off chance that that seems like you, look at Wolfram Alpha. Also, You can utilize it to get the verifiable information you need for your composition without swimming through problematic indexed lists.
- Venture Project Gutenberg; Venture Gutenberg is a beautiful extraordinary asset and can be utilized severally. Also, Writers of authentic fiction or verifiable can utilize it to get hands-on with the writing and language of past periods. It’s likewise a fantastic open door for writers who use intertextuality.
- Title Generators; Have you at any point felt at a complete loss of what to expound on? Once in a while, to bump your exploration the correct way, you need a dose of motivation. Also, Utilizing a title generator can assist you with thinking about a point or viewpoint which at that point informs your composing research measure.
- Google Keep; In case you’re similar to a lot of writers, and imaginative individuals, all in all, you may feel more equipped for communicating right now instead of putting away and utilizing a lot of information. Apps, for example, Google Keep and Evernote permit you to catch blazes of motivation before they drift away forever.
- A physical notebook and scratchpad; Devices don’t need to be advanced. There are a ton of advantages to writing down your exploration by hand. On the off chance that you’ve gotten used to the advanced world, check an actual notebook or scratchpad out and check whether you appreciate the experience.
Regardless of which exploration instrument you choose to utilize consistently remembers its motivation. Try not to explore for its purpose. Ensure it will fortify your composition and add an incentive for your proposed peruser.

Composing and Writing:

While the facts confirm that expert composing instruments aren’t fundamental for produce extraordinary work, they can help! From word processors intended to address the issues of writers simply like you, through to significant self-altering assets, there is more assistance accessible than any time in recent memory.

Here is a choice of the absolute best working apparatuses out there, alongside certain tips on making them work for you. Writing list:

Google Docs:

Google Docs is outstanding amongst other working devices out there. It’s amazing, adaptable, and cloud-based. It’s additionally astounding for cooperation. Also, Google Docs is an online word processor that allows you to make and format records and work with others. As a composing app, it’s helpful when you’d prefer to work together with another person on a composting project, similar to a supervisor or co-creator.

Grammarly:

It’s difficult to envision the number of writers who have been helped by Grammarly. The free form is an unimaginable asset, and the paid alternative takes things to another level. It doesn’t simply fix your slip-ups – it gives you mindfulness as a writer, displaying your shortcomings and enlightening a way to progress.

Evernote Web:

Evernote is a platform that permits you to take a wide range of notes. It’s likewise an extraordinary spot to begin composing if you’d like a clean, effectively open interface. Utilizing Evernote additionally can help you stay coordinated so you can shuffle and find numerous composing projects immediately.

Draft:

A draft is a web-based composing app that joins joint effort and altering highlights. Its variant control highlights help monitor your changes, and it can work with other internet composing apps.

Scrivener:

On the off chance that you compose books, Scrivener is a significant composing instrument for you. A lot of trustworthy writers use it for a wide range of composing however, its intricacy and expectation to absorb information imply it’s a shrewd decision for complex composing projects specifically.

yWriter:

On the off chance that you need a free option in contrast to Scrivener, look at yWriter. It’s been made by a writer, so you can utilize it securely in the information that it has the necessities of writers solidly as a primary concern.

Set aside the effort to pick a determination of composing instruments that are a solid match for your planned utilization, interaction, and financial plan. Simply ensure that choosing and learning devices doesn’t turn into a form of tarrying – apparatuses are there to serve your composition, as opposed to occupy from it.

Marketing and Showcasing:

Whether or not you love or disdain the need to advertise your work, it’s verifiably evident. Also, The degree of showcasing required changes from writer to writer. Freelance substance designers may have to keep a noteworthy profile on a site like Upwork, for instance. Independently published creators may have to imagine and execute a perplexing promoting plan.

Regardless of the sort of showcasing you need to do, there is a valuable instrument out there for you. Here is a couple of the best. Marketing list:

G Suite:

Possibly you can guess by the reality a Google device has sprung up in every segment that I’m a tremendous enthusiast of what they do. I’ve discovered a ton of writers don’t know about Google Suite. Also, You can deal with your creator messages with no sweat and incredible highlights of Gmail and Google Drive. What’s not to cherish?

Hootsuite:

Web-based media is an incredible method to associate with perusers and individual writers, spread the news about your work, and build up yourself as a writer. It can likewise be a spirit obliterating round of whack a mole, designed to be addictive and keep you in a condition of reactivity. To hold the advantages of online media, while dispensing with the disadvantages, utilize an app like Hootsuite. It will hugely support your web-based media effectiveness, permitting you more opportunity to compose.

Medium:

The medium permits you to impart your accounts and thoughts to the world. It is both the home of a few notable distributions and an incredible spot to distribute your composition in case you’re keen on making your points of view and encounters accessible to a more extensive crowd or audience.

WordPress.com:

WordPress.com encourages and helps you to start to make money from free blogging or blog or fabricate a site in seconds with no specialized information. Also, The product it depends on (confusingly named WordPress.org), powers 32% of the Internet, so it’s a popular contributing to a blog platform. With WordPress, you can make custom online journals effectively and share them on a custom site based on your personal preference.

Sovereignties and Royalties Calculator:

At times, the monetary side of composing can be a wellspring of stress and incapacitate our composting efforts. If you put resources into showcasing without having a monetary arrangement set up; you wind up squandering cash and not seeing any genuine ROI. Also, Computing your sovereignties can be a helpful initial phase in formulating the remainder of your promoting plan.

For a ton of writers, advertising is a trouble spot, for other people; it’s an intriguing and helpful field to get inundated in. Regardless of which side of the gap you fall on, utilizing the correct apparatuses will make your advertising much more productive and powerful.

Now, you can choose the Right Options For You:

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February 21, 2021
Marketing Research Objectives, Advantages, and Limitations

What does Marketing Research mean? Define Marketing Research; “The systematic, objective and exhaustive search for the study of the facts relevant to any problem in the field of marketing.” You’ll understand Marketing Research and their best topics – Objectives, Advantages, and Limitations. Marketing research may describe as a method of getting facts to use by the executive in formulating policies and plans.

The Concept of Marketing Research explains by its Objectives, Advantages, and Limitations.

It can also be defined as the systematic gathering, recording and analyzing of data about problems relating to the marketing of goods and services. It’s a systematic search for information. It involves data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Research cannot draw decisions, but it helps marketers in the task of decision making.

A successful executive will never depend upon guesswork. He looks for more accurate information through research. The main idea of marketing research is to know more about consumers, dealers, and products. As the business grows, the distance between the manufacturer and consumers also widens.

The management depends upon marketing research as a tool in solving marketing problems. It helps in taking a fruitful and efficient decision as to the flow of goods and services in the hands of the customers.

What is Market Research?

Market research is an important element of the process of marketing research. They include a complete analysis of the market. Information regarding the nature, size, organization profitability of different markets, changes in markets and various factors-economic, social and political-affecting those changes are studied vigorously. The main purpose of market research is to know about the consumers and the markets of its products or services.

This article has given a solution to understanding; Advantages and Limitations of Marketing Research, or Objectives and Limitations of Marketing Research, or Objectives and Advantages of Marketing Research.

Objectives of Marketing Research:

Marketing research is undertaken for attaining the following objectives:

To Provide the Basis For Proper Planning:

Marketing and sales forecast research provides a sound basis for the formulation of all marketing plans, policies, programs, and procedures.

To Reduce Marketing Costs:

They provide ways and means to reduce marketing costs like selling, advertisement, and distribution, etc.

To Find Out New Markets for The Product:

Their aims at exploring new markets for the product and maintaining the existing ones.

To Determine the Proper Price Policy:

It is considered helpful in the formulation of proper price policy about the products.

To Study in Detail Likes and Dislikes of the Consumers:

It tries to find out what the consumers, (the people of all genders who constitute the market) think and want. It keeps us in touch with the consumers, minds and to study their likes and dislikes.

To Know The Market Competition:

They also aim at knowing the quantum of competition prevalent in the market about the product in question. The company may need reliable information about competitor’s moves and strategies which are of immense significance for further planning.

To Study The External Forces and Their Impact:

They provide valuable information by studying the impact of external forces on the organization. External forces may include conditions developing in foreign markets, govt, policies and regulations, consumer incomes and spending habits, new products entering the market and their impact on the company’s products. External forces may include conditions developing in foreign markets, govt, policies and regulations, consumer incomes and spending habits, new products entering the market and their impact on the company’s products.

Prof. Gilies has rightly pointed out that,

“The basic objective of marketing research is to supply management with information which will lead to a fuller understanding of the distribution habits and attitudes of present and potential buyers and users, and their reactions to products, packing, selling and advertising methods.”

Advantages of Marketing research:

The following advantages of marketing research below are:

Explains customer resistance:

Research is useful for finding out customer resistance to the company’s products. Remedial measures are also suggested by the researcher to deal with the situation. This makes the product and marketing policies agreeable to consumers.

Suggests sales promotion techniques

Promotion Research; enables a manufacturer to introduce appropriate sales promotion techniques, select the most convenient channel of distribution, suitable pricing policy for the products and provision of discounts and concessions to dealers. They facilitate sales promotion.

Offers guidance to marketing executives:

To research, offers information and guidance to marketing executives while framing marketing policies. Continuous research enables a company to face adverse marketing situation boldly. It acts as an insurance against possible changes in the market environment.

Facilitates the selection and training of the sales force:

It is useful for the selection and training of staff in the sales organization. It also suggests the incentives which should be offered for the motivation of employees concerned with marketing.

Promotes business activities:

They enable a business unit to grow its activities. It creates goodwill in the market and also enables a business unit to earn high profits through consumer-oriented marketing policies and programs.

Facilitates appraisal of marketing policies:

Research activities enable business executives to have an appraisal of the present marketing policies in the light of findings of research work. Suitable adjustments in the policies are also possible as per the suggestions made by the researchers.

Suggests new marketing opportunities:

Research, suggests new marketing opportunities and how they can be exploited fully. It identifies emerging market opportunities.

Facilitates inventory study:

It is useful for the evaluation of the company’s inventory policies and also for the introduction of more efficient ways of managing inventories including finished goods and raw material.

Provides marketing information:

Research provides information on various aspects of marketing. It suggests the relative strengths and weaknesses of the company. Based on such information, marketing executives find it easy to frame policies for the future period. MR provides information, guidance and alternative solutions to current marketing problems.

Provides information on product acceptance:

They help in knowing the probability of acceptance of the product in its present form. It is also useful for the introduction of modifications in the existing product line of a firm.

Creates a progressive outlook:

Research generates progressive and dynamic outlook throughout the business organization. It promotes systematic thinking and a sense of professionalization within the company. It also creates enthusiasm among marketing executives. This brings success and stability to the whole business unit.

Has wider social significance:

Research is of paramount importance from the social angle. It is how the ultimate consumer becomes king of the market place, with his desires, prejudice and every whim transmitted to the producer and distributor. In brief, MR has a wider scope of significance. It is useful to all parties involved in the process of marketing.

Limitations of Marketing Research:

Now let’s discuss above listed limitations of marketing research.

Limited scope:

They solve many business-related problems. However, it cannot solve all business problems. It cannot solve problems related to consumer behavior, income and expenditure relationships, etc. Thus, its scope is limited.

Costly in the Market:

It is a costly affair. It needs a lot of money to conduct various market research activities. Huge funds are required to pay salaries, prepare questionnaires, conduct surveys, prepare reports, etc. It is not a viable choice for small businesses. It is suitable only for large companies who can afford its cost.

Provides suggestions and not solutions:

They provide data to the marketing manager. It guides and advises him. It also helps him to solve marketing problems. However, it does not solve the marketing problem. The marketing manager solves marketing problems. So, MR only provides suggestions. It does not provide solutions.

Time-consuming:

It is a lengthy and time-consuming process. This process involves many important steps. All these steps are crucial and not even a single step can be neglected or avoided. In other words, there are no short-cuts in MR. Generally, it takes at least three to six months to solve a marketing problem. Therefore, it cannot be used in urgent or emergencies.

Limited practical value:

They only an academic exercise. It is mainly based on a hypothetical approach. It gives theoretical solutions, it does not give real solutions to real-life problems. Its solutions look good on paper but are harder to implement in a real sense. Thus, it has limited practical value.

Can’t predict consumer behavior:

They collect data on consumer behavior. However, this data is not accurate because consumer behavior cannot be predicted. It keeps on changing according to the time and moods of the consumers. Consumer behavior is also very complex. It is influenced by social, religious, family, economic and other factors. It is very difficult to study these factors.

No accurate results:

It is not a physical science like physics, chemistry, biology, etc. They are also social science. It studies consumer behavior and marketing environment. These factors are very unpredictable. Therefore, it does not give accurate results. It gives results, but it cannot give 100% correct results.

Non-availability of technical staff:

It is done by researchers. The researchers must be highly qualified and experienced. They must also be hard-working, patient and honest. However, in India, it is very difficult to find good researchers. Generally, it is done by non-experienced and non-technical people. Therefore, MR becomes a costly, time-consuming and unreliable affair. So, its quality is also affected due to the non-availability of technical staff.

Can be misused:

Sometimes, marketing research is misused by the company. It is used to delay decisions, it is used to support the views of a particular individual. Also, used to grab power (managerial) in the company.

Non-availability of reliable data:

The quality of the marketing research report depends on the quality of the collected data. If the data is complete, up-to-date and reliable, then the MR report will also be reliable. However, in India, it is very difficult to get full, latest and trustworthy data. So, the non-availability of reliable data is also its limitation.

The resistance of marketing managers:

The marketing managers do not use the suggestions given in the marketing research report. Primarily, they feel that these suggestions are not practical. Secondly, they also feel that their importance will become less if they use these suggestions. There is a conflict between marketing managers and researchers.

Fragmented approach:

They study a problem only from a particular angle. Also, it does not consider an overall view. There are many causes of a marketing problem. It does not study all causes. It only studies one or two causes.

For example, if there is a problem with falling sales. There are many causes for falling sales; like poor quality, high-price, competition, recession, consumer resistance, etc. It will only study two causes viz; low-quality and high price. It will not study other causes. So, it is not a reliable one.

January 26, 2019
Define Marketing Research, and their Process!
Marketing research is key to the evolution of successful marketing strategies and programmes. It is an important tool to study buyer behavior, changes in consumer lifestyles and consumption patterns, brand loyalty and forecast market changes. Research is also used to study competition and analyze the competitor product’s positioning and how to gain a competitive advantage. Recently, marketing research is being used to help create and enhance brand equity. Also learned, Investment in Mutual Funds, Define Marketing Research, and their Process!

Learn, Explain, Define Marketing Research, and their Process!

According to Philip Kotler, Marketing research is systematic problem analysis, model building and fact finding for the purposes of important decision making and control in the marketing of goods and services.

The marketing research process is a seven-stage one. The various stages of this process are:

1. PROBLEM DEFINITION:

This is the starting point in the marketing research exercise. Invariably, in any enterprise, there are several marketing issues that may require examination, and invariably every decision maker perceives his information need as being the most important. In problem definition it is important to be specific, avoiding ambiguities and generalities. Care should also be taken, not to define problems in too narrow a field as that may distract the researcher’s perspective. This may even affect creativity in the research.

2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:

Once the problem is defined, the next logical step is to state what the researcher wants to achieve. This statement is called objectives. To be meaningful and help focus the researcher’s attention, these objectives should be specific, attainable & measurable. The purpose of these objectives is to act as a guide to the researcher and help him in maintaining a focus all through the research.

3. RESEARCH DESIGN:

The third stage of the marketing research process is deciding on the research design. There are three types of research designs, namely:

(A) Exploratory: – This kind of research is conducted when the researcher does not know how & why a certain phenomenon occurs, for example, how does the consumer evaluate the quality of a bank or a hotel or an airline?

Since the prime goal of an exploratory research is to know the unknown, this research is unstructured. Focus groups, interviewing key customer groups, experts and even search for printed or published information are some common techniques.

(B) Descriptive: – This research is carried out to describe a phenomenon or market characteristics. For example, a study to understand buyer behavior & describe characteristics of the target market is descriptive research.

Continuing the above example of service quality, research was done on how consumers evaluate the quality of competing service institutions can be considered as an example of descriptive research.

(C) Causative: – this kind of research is done to establish a cause and effect relationship, for example, the influence of income & lifestyle on the purchase decision. Here the researcher may like to see the effect of rising income & changing lifestyle on consumption of select products.

4. SOURCES OF DATA:

Once the research design has been decided upon, the next stage is that of selecting the sources of data. Essentially there are two sources of data or information- secondary & primary:
- Secondary data: This refers to the information that has been collected earlier by someone else. Often this includes printed or published reports, news items, industry or trade statistics etc. this also includes internal documents like invoices, sales reports, the payment history of customers etc. these are important to the researcher as they provide an insight to the problem. Often the preliminary investigation is restricted to secondary data.
- Primary data: To overcome the limitations of incompatibility, obsolescence and bias, the researcher turns to the primary data. This is also resorted to when the secondary data is incomplete. Primary sources refer to data collected directly from the marketplace-customers, traders & suppliers often are the major sources. They are often reliable data sources and help in overcoming limitations of secondary data. The problem in primary data is its cost, both In terms of money & time, and often a researcher bias also creeps in.
5. DATA COLLECTION:

The researcher is now ready to take the plunge. But still, he or she needs to be clear about the following.

Procedure for data collection:

Data can be collected through any or a combination of the following techniques.
- Observation: This technique involves observing how a customer behaves in the shopping area, how he or she dresses up & what does the customer say when he or she sees the product.
- Experimentation: This is a technique that involves experimenting with new product ideas, advertising copies & campaigns, sales promotion ideas & even pricing & distribution strategies with the target customer group. These experiments can be conducted in an uncontrolled environment or in a controlled & simulated market environment.
Tools for data collection:

The researcher has to decide on the appropriate tool for data collection.

These tools are:-
- Questionnaire – used for the survey method.
- Interview schedule – used mainly for exploratory research.
- Association test – primarily used in qualitative research, also called as TAT (Thematic Apperception Test).
6. DATA ANALYSIS:

The next stage is that of the data analysis. It is important to understand raw data has no usage in marketing research .hence appropriate analytical tools must be used. The most elementary is the arithmetic analysis using percentile and ratios. Statistical analysis like mean, median, mode, percentages, standard deviation and coefficient of correlations should be used wherever applicable

7. REPORT & PRESENTATION:

The last stage is that of writing out a report and making a presentation to the Decision –maker. It is important that the report has the summary, called the executive summary, giving a bird’s-eye view of the research. This is because most senior managers have little time for going through the entire report in depth. The executive summary can direct the reader’s attention to specific issues by turning to the relevant sections in the report and should not exceed a thousand words.

The report should be structured and pages chronologically numbered generally, the structure of a good report is somewhat like the following:
- Introduction to the problem.
- Marketing research finding or survey findings.
- Interpretation of research finding, and.
- Policy Implications.
May 28, 2018
Role of Price Perception in Consumer Buying Process

Role of Price Perception in Consumer Buying Process with Consumer Behavior

The price perception has been one of the most important research issues on the consumer behavior for last many years. The concept of reference point is very important in this regard and efforts have been made in order to define it. Consumers establish their reference points according to their personal understanding, annotations, the existing knowledge of prices and their subjective interpretation. Why You Should Be Balancing Your Books on Every Single Month? Definition of Price Perception.

The reference points are dependent of two factors: the kind of information i.e. external or internal and behavioral process of formation of references. The internal reference point comes from the consumer estimation of price in his mind. The two factors contextual and temporal are involved in this formation. The first factor is related to the perception of different prices within the same category of product while buying.

The temporal factor depends on the past buying experiences of the customer. The importance of both these factors varies according to the customer’s characteristics. For instance, consumer who purchased the one product more frequently will remember its price more clearly and as a result temporal factor will be more important. External information comes from the marketing and internal form other sources.

It means any message of the price consumer receives through external channel and which he uses to make comparisons. The seller can control the external information by the marketing efforts i.e. through advertising and some internal factors may be beyond their control. But the information must be credible so that the consumer can use it in making his assessment of the product.

The external reference point can be the price suggested by the seller on the product’s packaging, or the brand which is more frequently purchased or the price of the dominating brand. The main aim of the external reference point is to increase the internal reference price so that customer perceive existing price as attractive and buy the product

According to a research study, price perception is clearly more relevant factor in purchasing decision than reality. Research was conducted in five countries to measure the extent to which perception of price is important for retailers. Three factors were identified which are responsible for price perception.

The first one is the clarity with which price is communicated, second is price communication on entry points and the third is overall environment. The research indicated the fact that the retailers who are perceived as more expensive than others are unable to compete effectively in the market.

A study conducted on entry level price communication difference of Zara and H&M is a good example on price perception. According to the study, Zara was found to be 31% more costly than H&M, but the customers’ perception of this difference quite low as compared to the actual figure.

This reveals the Zara’s ability to manage its perception through effective and clear communication of prices. They have been successful in portraying their prices as nearly equal to competitor but in actual their prices are relatively high. The magic of perception has worked really well in this case which reveals the importance of perception the consumers.

Another classic example is the price perception of Argos which shows how they have been able to build their price perception that is better than reality. They have been able to communicate their price position in a way that results in a cheaper price perception than reality. Their advertising strategy was price centered along with prominent supply of low priced goods in order to create a cheap price perception of their goods.

In this way, the have been able to portray themselves as low-priced as compared to competitors while the reality may be different. However, the company has to work continuously in order to maintain that perception. How To Make Your Small Business Stand Out? Many Ways You Can Try IT!

Role of Perception in Consumer Behavior

The perceptions consumers have of a business and its products or service have a dramatic effect on buying behavior. That’s why businesses spend so much money marketing themselves, honing their customer service and doing whatever else they can to favorably influence the perceptions of target consumers. With careful planning and execution, a business can influence those perceptions and foster profitable consumer behaviors.

Influencing Perception

Consumers continually synthesize all the information they have about a company to form a decision about whether that company offers value. In a sense, consumer perception is an approximation of reality, notes the book “Consumer Behaviour,” by Atul Kr. Sharma. Businesses attempt to influence this perception of reality, sometimes through trickery and manipulation but often just by presenting themselves in the best possible light. For example, advertisements often trumpet the quality and convenience of a product or service, hoping to foster a consumer perception of high value, which can pay off with increased sales.

Reaching Consumers

A key factor in influencing consumer perception is exposure. The more information consumers have about a product, the more comfortable they are buying it. As a result, businesses do all they can to publicize their offerings. Positive Relationships with Individual and Organization Outside, However, this causes a problem: When every business bombards consumers with marketing messages, consumers tend to tune out. To influence consumer perception, a business not only must expose its product to consumers, it also must make its product stand out from the crowd.

Risk Perception

Consumer risk perception is another factor businesses must take into account when trying to encourage buying behaviors. The more risky a proposition is, the more difficult it is to get consumers to act. If consumers aren’t familiar with a brand of product, they can’t assess the risk involved; it could be poorly built, for instance, or too costly compared to substitutes. Businesses can overcome this hesitancy by offering as much product information as possible in the form of advertisements or by encouraging product reviews. Allowing potential customers to handle the product in stores or test it at home also decreases risk perception, as does offering a flexible return policy.

Customer Retention

Successful businesses don’t relax once a customer makes a purchase. Rather, they continue to foster perceptions that result in profitable behaviors. Once consumers have tried a product, the task becomes maintaining a good reputation and establishing brand loyalty. Offering superior customer service is an effective tactic because it maintains the perception that the business cares about its customers’ best interests. In return, customers become loyal to the business, which secures a consistent revenue stream for the company and makes it more difficult for competitors to poach customers.

November 17, 2017
Validity

What is Validity?

The most crucial issue in test construction is validity. Whereas reliability addresses issues of consistency, validity assesses what the test is to be accurate about. A test that is valid for clinical assessment should measure what it is intended to measure and should also produce information useful to clinicians. A psychological test cannot be said to be valid in any abstract or absolute sense, but more practically, it must be valid in a particular context and for a specific group of people (Messick, 1995). Although a test can be reliable without being valid, the opposite is not true; a necessary prerequisite for validity is that the test must have achieved an adequate level of reliability. Thus, a valid test is one that accurately measures the variable it is intended to measure. For example, a test comprising questions about a person’s musical preference might erroneously state that it is a test of creativity. The test might be reliable in the sense that if it is given to the same person on different occasions, it produces similar results each time. However, it would not be reliable in that an investigation might indicate it does not correlate with other more valid measurements of creativity.

Establishing the validity of a test can be extremely difficult, primarily because psychological variables are usually abstract concepts such as intelligence, anxiety, and personality. These concepts have no tangible reality, so their existence must be inferred through indirect means. In addition, conceptualization and research on constructs undergo change over time requiring that test validation go through continual refinement (G. Smith & McCarthy, 1995). In constructing a test, a test designer must follow two necessary, initial steps. First, the construct must be theoretically evaluated and described; second, specific operations (test questions) must be developed to measure it (S. Haynes et al., 1995). Even when the designer has followed these steps closely and conscientiously, it is sometimes difficult to determine what the test really measures. For example, IQ tests are good predictors of academic success, but many researchers question whether they adequately measure the concept of intelligence as it is theoretically described. Another hypothetical test that, based on its item content, might seem to measure what is described as musical aptitude may in reality be highly correlated with verbal abilities. Thus, it may be more a measure of verbal abilities than of musical aptitude.

Any estimate of validity is concerned with relationships between the test and some external independently observed event. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council for Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999; G. Morgan, Gliner, & Harmon, 2001) list the three main methods of establishing validity as content-related, criterion-related, and construct-related.

Content Validity

During the initial construction phase of any test, the developers must first be concerned with its content validity. This refers to the representativeness and relevance of the assessment instrument to the construct being measured. During the initial item selection, the constructors must carefully consider the skills or knowledge area of the variable they would like to measure. The items are then generated based on this conceptualization of the variable. At some point, it might be decided that the item content over-represents, under-represents, or excludes specific areas, and alterations in the items might be made accordingly. If experts on subject matter are used to determine the items, the number of these experts and their qualifications should be included in the test manual. The instructions they received and the extent of agreement between judges should also be provided. A good test covers not only the subject matter being measured, but also additional variables. For example, factual knowledge may be one criterion, but the application of that knowledge and the ability to analyze data are also important. Thus, a test with high content validity must cover all major aspects of the content area and must do so in the correct proportion.

A concept somewhat related to content validity is face validity. These terms are not synonymous, however, because content validity pertains to judgments made by experts, whereas face validity concerns judgments made by the test users. The central issue in face validity is test rapport. Thus, a group of potential mechanics who are being tested for basic skills in arithmetic should have word problems that relate to machines rather than to business transactions. Face validity, then, is present if the test looks good to the persons taking it, to policymakers who decide to include it in their programs, and to other untrained personnel. Despite the potential importance of face validity in regard to test-taking attitudes, disappointingly few formal studies on face validity are performed and/or reported in test manuals.

In the past, content validity has been conceptualized and operationalized as being based on the subjective judgment of the test developers. As a result, it has been regarded as the least preferred form of test validation, albeit necessary in the initial stages of test development. In addition, its usefulness has been primarily focused at achievement tests (how well has this student learned the content of the course?) and personnel selection (does this applicant know the information relevant to the potential job?). More recently, it has become used more extensively in personality and clinical assessment (Butcher, Graham, Williams, & Ben-Porath, 1990; Millon, 1994). This has paralleled more rigorous and empirically based approaches to content validity along with a closer integration to criterion and construct validation.

Criterion Validity

A second major approach to determining validity is criterion validity, which has also been called empirical or predictive validity. Criterion validity is determined by comparing test scores with some sort of performance on an outside measure. The outside measure should have a theoretical relation to the variable that the test is supposed to measure. For example, an intelligence test might be correlated with grade point average; an aptitude test, with independent job ratings or general maladjustment scores, with other tests measuring similar dimensions. The relation between the two measurements is usually expressed as a correlation coefficient.

Criterion-related validity is most frequently divided into either concurrent or predictive validity. Concurrent validity refers to measurements taken at the same, or approximately the same, time as the test. For example, an intelligence test might be administered at the same time as assessments of a group’s level of academic achievement. Predictive validity refers to outside measurements that were taken some time after the test scores were derived. Thus, predictive validity might be evaluated by correlating the intelligence test scores with measures of academic achievement a year after the initial testing. Concurrent validation is often used as a substitute for predictive validation because it is simpler, less expensive, and not as time consuming. However, the main consideration in deciding whether concurrent or predictive validation is preferable depends on the test’s purpose. Predictive validity is most appropriate for tests used for selection and classification of personnel. This may include hiring job applicants, placing military personnel in specific occupational training programs, screening out individuals who are likely to develop emotional disorders, or identifying which category of psychiatric populations would be most likely to benefit from specific treatment approaches. These situations all require that the measurement device provide a prediction of some future outcome. In contrast, concurrent validation is preferable if an assessment of the client’s current status is required, rather than a prediction of what might occur to the client at some future time. The distinction can be summarized by asking “Is Mr. Jones maladjusted?” (concurrent validity) rather than “Is Mr. Jones likely to become maladjusted at some future time?” (predictive validity).

An important consideration is the degree to which a specific test can be applied to a unique work-related environment (see Hogan, Hogan, & Roberts, 1996). This relates more to the social value and consequences of the assessment than the formal validity as reported in the test manual (Messick, 1995). In other words, can the test under consideration provide accurate assessments and predictions for the environment in which the examinee is working? To answer this question adequately, the examiner must refer to the manual and assess the similarity between the criteria used to establish the test’s validity and the situation to which he or she would like to apply the test. For example, can an aptitude test that has adequate criterion validity in the prediction of high school grade point average also be used to predict academic achievement for a population of college students? If the examiner has questions regarding the relative applicability of the test, he or she may need to undertake a series of specific tasks. The first is to identify the required skills for adequate performance in the situation involved. For example, the criteria for a successful teacher may include such attributes as verbal fluency, flexibility, and good public speaking skills. The examiner then must determine the degree to which each skill contributes to the quality of a teacher’s performance. Next, the examiner has to assess the extent to which the test under consideration measures each of these skills. The final step is to evaluate the extent to which the attribute that the test measures are relevant to the skills the examiner needs to predict. Based on these evaluations, the examiner can estimate the confidence that he or she places in the predictions developed from the test. This approach is sometimes referred to as synthetic validity because examiners must integrate or synthesize the criteria reported in the test manual with the variables they encounter in their clinical or organizational settings.

The strength of criterion validity depends in part on the type of variable being measured. Usually, intellectual or aptitude tests give relatively higher validity coefficients than personality tests because there are generally a greater number of variables influencing personality than intelligence. As the number of variables that influences the trait being measured increases, it becomes progressively more difficult to account for them. When a large number of variables are not accounted for, the trait can be affected in unpredictable ways. This can create a much wider degree of fluctuation in the test scores, thereby lowering the validity coefficient. Thus, when evaluating a personality test, the examiner should not expect as high a validity coefficient as for intellectual or aptitude tests. A helpful guide is to look at the validities found in similar tests and compare them with the test being considered. For example, if an examiner wants to estimate the range of validity to be expected for the extra-version scale on the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, he or she might compare it with the validities for similar scales found in the California Personality Inventory and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The relative level of validity, then, depends both on the quality of the construction of the test and on the variable being studied.

An important consideration is the extent to which the test accounts for the trait being measured or the behavior being predicted. For example, the typical correlation between intelligence tests and academic performance is about .50 (Neisser et al., 1996). Because no one would say that grade point average is entirely the result of intelligence, the relative extent to which intelligence determines grade point average has to be estimated. This can be calculated by squaring the correlation coefficient and changing it into a percentage. Thus, if the correlation of .50 is squared, it comes out to 25%, indicating that 25% of academic achievement can be accounted for by IQ as measured by the intelligence test. The remaining 75% may include factors such as motivation, quality of instruction, and past educational experience. The problem facing the examiner is to determine whether 25% of the variance is sufficiently useful for the intended purposes of the test. This ultimately depends on the personal judgment of the examiner.

The main problem confronting criterion validity is finding an agreed-on, definable, acceptable, and feasible outside criterion. Whereas for an intelligence test the grade point average might be an acceptable criterion, it is far more difficult to identify adequate criteria for most personality tests. Even with so-called intelligence tests, many researchers argue that it is more appropriate to consider them tests of scholastic aptitude rather than of intelligence. Yet another difficulty with criterion validity is the possibility that the criterion measure will be inadvertently biased. This is referred to as criterion contamination and occurs when knowledge of the test results influences an individual’s later performance. For example, a supervisor in an organization who receives such information about subordinates may act differently toward a worker placed in a certain category after being tested. This situation may set up negative or positive expectations for the worker, which could influence his or her level of performance. The result is likely to artificially alter the level of the validity coefficients. To work around these difficulties, especially in regard to personality tests, a third major method must be used to determine validity.

Construct Validity

The method of construct validity was developed in part to correct the inadequacies and difficulties encountered with content and criterion approaches. Early forms of content validity relied too much on subjective judgment, while criterion validity was too restrictive in working with the domains or structure of the constructs being measured. Criterion validity had the further difficulty in that there was often a lack of agreement in deciding on adequate outside criteria. The basic approach of construct validity is to assess the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait. This assessment involves three general steps. Initially, the test constructor must make a careful analysis of the trait. This is followed by a consideration of the ways in which the trait should relate to other variables. Finally, the test designer needs to test whether these hypothesized relationships actually exist (Foster & Cone, 1995). For example, a test measuring dominance should have a high correlation with the individual accepting leadership roles and a low or negative correlation with measures of submissiveness. Likewise, a test measuring anxiety should have a high positive correlation with individuals who are measured during an anxiety-provoking situation, such as an experiment involving some sort of physical pain. As these hypothesized relationships are verified by research studies, the degree of confidence that can be placed in a test increases.

There is no single, best approach for determining construct validity; rather, a variety of different possibilities exist. For example, if some abilities are expected to increase with age, correlations can be made between a population’s test scores and age. This may be appropriate for variables such as intelligence or motor coordination, but it would not be applicable for most personality measurements. Even in the measurement of intelligence or motor coordination, this approach may not be appropriate beyond the age of maturity. Another method for determining construct validity is to measure the effects of experimental or treatment interventions. Thus, a posttest measurement may be taken following a period of instruction to see if the intervention affected the test scores in relation to a previous pretest measure. For example, after an examinee completes a course in arithmetic, it would be predicted that scores on a test of arithmetical ability would increase. Often, correlations can be made with other tests that supposedly measure a similar variable. However, a new test that correlates too highly with existing tests may represent needless duplication unless it incorporates some additional advantage such as a shortened format, ease of administration, or superior predictive validity. Factor analysis is of particular relevance to construct validation because it can be used to identify and assess the relative strength of different psychological traits. Factor analysis can also be used in the design of a test to identify the primary factor or factors measured by a series of different tests. Thus, it can be used to simplify one or more tests by reducing the number of categories to a few common factors or traits. The factorial validity of a test is the relative weight or loading that a factor has on the test. For example, if a factor analysis of a measure of psychopathology determined that the test was composed of two clear factors that seemed to be measuring anxiety and depression, the test could be considered to have factorial validity. This would be especially true if the two factors seemed to be accounting for a clear and large portion of what the test was measuring.

Another method used in construct validity is to estimate the degree of internal consistency by correlating specific subtests with the test’s total score. For example, if a subtest on an intelligence test does not correlate adequately with the overall or Full Scale IQ, it should be either eliminated or altered in a way that increases the correlation. A final method for obtaining construct validity is for a test to converge or correlate highly with variables that are theoretically similar to it. The test should not only show this convergent validity but also have discriminate validity, in which it would demonstrate low or negative correlations with variables that are dissimilar to it. Thus, scores on reading comprehension should show high positive correlations with performance in a literature class and low correlations with performance in a class involving mathematical computation.

Related to discriminant and convergent validity is the degree of sensitivity and specificity an assessment device demonstrates in identifying different categories. Sensitivity refers to the percentage of true positives that the instrument has identified, whereas specificity is the relative percentage of true negatives. A structured clinical interview might be quite sensitive in that it would accurately identify 90% of schizophrenics in an admitting ward of a hospital. However, it may not be sufficiently specific in that 30% of schizophrenics would be incorrectly classified as either normal or having some other diagnosis. The difficulty in determining sensitivity and specificity lies in developing agreed-on, objectively accurate outside criteria for categories such as psychiatric diagnosis, intelligence, or personality traits.

As indicated by the variety of approaches discussed, no single, quick, efficient method exists for determining construct validity. It is similar to testing a series of hypotheses in which the results of the studies determine the meanings that can be attached to later test scores (Foster & Cone, 1995; Messick, 1995). Almost any data can be used, including material from the content and criterion approaches. The greater the amount of supporting data, the greater is the level of confidence with which the test can be used. In many ways, construct validity represents the strongest and most sophisticated approach to test construction. In many ways, all types of validity can be considered as subcategories of construct validity. It involves theoretical knowledge of the trait or ability being measured, knowledge of other related variables, hypothesis testing, and statements regarding the relationship of the test variable to a network of other variables that have been investigated. Thus, construct validation is a never-ending process in which new relationships always can be verified and investigated.

May 15, 2017
Reliability: Definition, Methods, and Example
Uncover the true definition of reliability. Understand why reliability is crucial for machines, systems, and test results to perform consistently and accurately. What is Reliability? The quality of being trustworthy or performing consistently well. The degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification can depend on to be accurate.

Here expiration of Reliability with their topic Definition, Methods, and Example.

Definition of Reliability? The ability of an apparatus, machine, or system to consistently perform its intended or required function or mission, on-demand, and without degradation or failure.

Manufacturing: The probability of failure-free performance over an item’s useful life, or a specified time-frame, under specified environmental and duty-cycle conditions. Often expressed as mean time between failures (MTBF) or reliability coefficient. Also called quality over time.

Consistency and validity of test results determined through statistical methods after repeated trials.

The reliability of a test refers to its degree of stability, consistency, predictability, and accuracy. It addresses the extent to which scores obtained by a person are the same if the person is reexamined by the same test on different occasions. Underlying the concept of reliability is the possible range of error, or error of measurement, of a single score.

This is an estimate of the range of possible random fluctuation that can expect in an individual’s? score. It should stress; however, that a certain degree of error or noise is always present in the system; from such factors as a misreading of the items, poor administration procedures; or the changing mood of the client. If there is a large degree of random fluctuation; the examiner cannot place a great deal of confidence in an individual’s scores.

Testing in Trials:

The goal of a test constructor is to reduce, as much as possible; the degree of measurement error, or random fluctuation. If this is achieved, the difference between one score and another for a measured characteristic is more likely to result from some true difference than from some chance fluctuation. Two main issues related to the degree of error in a test. The first is the inevitable, natural variation in human performance.

Usually, the variability is less for measurements of ability than for those of personality. Whereas ability variables (intelligence, mechanical aptitude, etc.) show gradual changes resulting from growth and development; many personality traits are much more highly dependent on factors such as mood. This is particularly true in the case of a characteristic such as anxiety.

The practical significance of this in evaluating a test is that certain factors outside the test itself can serve to reduce the reliability that the test can realistically expect to achieve. Thus, an examiner should generally expect higher reliabilities for an intelligence test than for a test measuring a personality variable such as anxiety. It is the examiner’s responsibility to know what being measure; especially the degree of variability to expect in the measured trait.

The second important issue relating to reliability is that psychological testing methods are necessarily imprecise. For the hard sciences, researchers can make direct measurements such as the concentration of a chemical solution; the relative weight of one organism compared with another, or the strength of radiation. In contrast, many constructs in psychology are often measured indirectly.

For example;

Intelligence cannot perceive directly; it must infer by measuring behavior that has been defined as being intelligent. Variability relating to these inferences is likely to produce a certain degree of error resulting from the lack of precision in defining and observing inner psychological constructs. Variability in measurement also occurs simply; because people have true (not because of test error) fluctuations in performance between one testing session and the next.

Whereas it is impossible to control for the natural variability in human performance; adequate test construction can attempt to reduce the imprecision that is a function of the test itself. Natural human variability and test imprecision make the task of measurement extremely difficult. Although some error in testing is inevitable; the goal of test construction is to keep testing errors within reasonably accepted limits.

A high correlation is generally .80 or more, but the variable being measured also changes the expected strength of the correlation. Likewise, the method of determining reliability alters the relative strength of the correlation. Ideally, clinicians should hope for correlations of .90 or higher in tests that are used to make decisions about individuals, whereas a correlation of .70 or more is generally adequate for research purposes.

Methods of reliability:

The purpose of reliability is to estimate the degree of test variance caused by the error. The four primary methods of obtaining reliability involve determining;
- The extent to which the test produces consistent results on retesting (test-retest).
- The relative accuracy of a test at a given time (alternate forms).
- Internal consistency of the items (split half), and.
- Degree of agreement between two examiners (inter-scorer).
Another way to summarize this is that reliability can be time to time (test-retest), form to form (alternate forms), item to item (split half), or scorer to scorer (inter-scorer). Although these are the main types of reliability, there is a fifth type, the Kuder-Richardson; like the split-half, it is a measurement of the internal consistency of the test items. However, because this method is considered appropriate only for tests that are relatively pure measures of a single variable, it does not cover in this book.

Test-Retest Reliability:

Test-retest reliability is determined by administering the test and then repeating it on a second occasion. The reliability coefficient is calculated by correlating the scores obtained by the same person on the two different administrations. The degree of correlation between the two scores indicates the extent to which the test scores can generalize from one situation to the next.

If the correlations are high, the results are less likely to cause by random fluctuations in the condition of the examinee or the testing environment. Thus, when the test is being used in actual practice; the examiner can be relatively confident that differences in scores are the result of an actual change in the trait being measured rather than random fluctuation.

Several factors must consider in assessing the appropriateness of test-retest reliability. One is that the interval between administrations can affect reliability. Thus, a test manual should specify the interval as well as any significant life changes that the examinees may have experienced such as counseling, career changes, or psychotherapy.

For example;

Tests of preschool intelligence often give reasonably high correlations if the second administration is within several months of the first one. However, correlations with later childhood or adult IQ are generally low because of innumerable intervening life changes. One of the major difficulties with test-retest reliability is the effect that practice and memory may have on performance; which can produce improvement between one administration and the next.

This is a particular problem for speeded and memory tests such as those found on the Digit Symbol and Arithmetic sub-tests of the WAIS-III. Additional sources of variation may be the result of random, short-term fluctuations in the examinee, or variations in the testing conditions. In general, test-retest reliability is the preferred method only if the variable being measured is relatively stable. If the variable is highly changeable (e.g., anxiety), this method is usually not adequate.

Alternate Forms:

The alternate forms method avoids many of the problems encountered with test-retest reliability. The logic behind alternate forms is that; if the trait measures several times on the same individual by using parallel forms of the test; the different measurements should produce similar results. The degree of similarity between the scores represents the reliability coefficient of the test.

As in the test-retest method, the interval between administrations should always include in the manual as well as a description of any significant intervening life experiences. If the second administration gave immediately after the first; the resulting reliability is more a measure of the correlation between forms and not across occasions.

More things:

Correlations determined by tests given with a wide interval; such as two months or more provide a measure of both the relation between forms and the degree of temporal stability. The alternate forms method eliminates many carryover effects; such as the recall of previous responses the examinee has made to specific items.

However, there is still likely to be some carryover effect in that the examinee can learn to adapt to the overall style of the test even when the specific item content between one test and another is unfamiliar. This is most likely when the test involves some sort of problem-solving strategy in which the same principle in solving one problem can use to solve the next one.

An examinee, for example, may learn to use mnemonic aids to increase his or her performance on an alternate form of the WAIS-III Digit Symbol subtest. Perhaps the primary difficulty with alternate forms lies in determining whether the two forms are equivalent.

For example;

If one test is more difficult than its alternate form, the difference in scores may represent actual differences in the two tests rather than differences resulting from the unreliability of the measure. Because the test constructor is attempting to measure the reliability of the test itself and not the differences between the tests, this could confound and lower the reliability coefficient.

Alternate forms should independently construct tests that use the same specifications, including the same number of items, type of content, format, and manner of administration. A final difficulty encounters primarily when there is a delay between one administration and the next. With such a delay, the examinee may perform differently because of short-term fluctuations such as mood, stress level, or the relative quality of the previous night’s sleep.

Thus, an examinee’s abilities may vary somewhat from one examination to another, thereby affecting test results. Despite these problems, alternate forms reliability has the advantage of at least reducing, if not eliminating, any carryover effects of the test-retest method. A further advantage is that the alternate test forms can be useful for other purposes, such as assessing the effects of a treatment program or monitoring a patient’s changes over time by administering the different forms on separate occasions.

Split Half Reliability:

The split-half method is the best technique for determining reliability for a trait with a high degree of fluctuation. Because the test given only once, the items are split in half, and the two halves correlate. As there is only one administration, the effects of time can’t intervene as they might with the test-retest method.

Thus, the split-half method gives a measure of the internal consistency of the test items rather than the temporal stability of different administrations of the same test. To determine split-half reliability, the test often split based on odd and even items. This method is usually adequate for most tests. Dividing the test into a first half and second half can be effective in some cases; but is often inappropriate because of the cumulative effects of warming up fatigue, and boredom; all of which can result in different levels of performance on the first half of the test compared with the second.

As is true with the other methods of obtaining reliability; the split-half method has limitations. When a test is split in half; there are fewer items on each half; which results in wider variability because the individual responses cannot stabilize as easily around a mean. As a general principle, the longer a test is; the more reliable it is because the larger the number of items; the easier it is for the majority of items to compensate for minor alterations in responding to a few of the other items. As with the alternate forms method; differences in the content may exist between one half and another.

Inter-scorer Reliability:

In some tests, scoring is based partially on the judgment of the examiner. Because judgment may vary between one scorer and the next; it may be important to assess the extent to which reliability might affect. This is especially true for projects and even for some ability tests where hard scorers may produce results somewhat different from easy scorers.

This variance in interscorer reliability may apply for global judgments based on test scores such as brain injury versus normal; or, for small details of scoring such as whether a person has given a shading versus a texture response on the Rorschach. The basic strategy for determining interscorer reliability is to obtain a series of responses from a single client and to have these responses scored by two different individuals.

A variation is to have two different examiners test the same client using the same test; and, then to determine how close their scores or ratings of the person are. The two sets of scores can then correlate to determine a reliability coefficient. Any test that requires even partial subjectivity in scoring should provide information on interscorer reliability.

The best form of reliability is dependent on both the nature of the variable being measured; and, the purposes for which the test uses. If the trait or ability being measured is highly stable; the test-retest method is preferable; whereas split half is more appropriate for characteristics that are highly subject to fluctuations. When using a test to make predictions, the test-retest method is preferable; because it gives an estimate of the dependability of the test from one administration to the next.

More things:

This is particularly true if, when determining reliability; an increased time interval existed between the two administrations. If, on the other hand, the examiner is concerned with the internal consistency and accuracy of a test for a single, one-time measure, either the split-half of the alternative forms would be best.

Another consideration in evaluating the acceptable range of reliability is the format of the test. Longer tests usually have higher reliabilities than shorter ones. Also, the format of the responses affects reliability. For example, a true-false format is likely to have lower reliability than multiple choice because each true-false item has a 50% possibility of the answer being correct by chance.

In contrast, each question in a multiple-choice format having five possible choices has only a 20% possibility of being correct by chance. A final consideration is that tests with various subtests or subscales should report the reliability for the overall test as well as for each of the subtests. In general, the overall test score has significantly higher reliability than its subtests. In estimating the confidence with which test scores can interpret; the examiner should take into account the lower reliabilities of the subtests.

1] For example;

A Full-Scale IQ on the WAIS-III can interpret with more confidence than the specific subscale scores. Most test manuals include a statistical index of the amount of error that can expect test scores; which refers to the standard error of measurement (SEM). The logic behind the SEM is that test scores consist of both truth and error.

Thus, there is always noise or error in the system, and the SEM provides a range to indicate how extensive that error is likely to be. The range depends on the test’s reliability so that the higher the reliability, the narrower the range of error. The SEM is a standard deviation score so that, for example, an SEM of 3 on an intelligence test would indicate that an individual’s score has a 68% chance of being ± 3 IQ points from the estimated true score.

Result of Score:

This is because the SEM of 3 represents a band extending from -1 to +1 standard deviations above and below the mean. Likewise, there would be a 95% chance that the individual’s score would fall within a range of ± 5 points from the estimated true score. From a theoretical perspective, the SEM is a statistical index of how a person’s repeat scores on a specific test would fall around a normal distribution.

Thus, it is a statement of the relationship among a person’s obtain score; his or her theoretically true score, and the test reliability. Because it is an empirical statement of the probable range of scores; the SEM has more practical usefulness than a knowledge of the test reliability. This band of error also refer to as a confidence interval.

The acceptable range of reliability is difficult to identify and depends partially on the variable being measured. In general; unstable aspects (states) of the person produce lower reliabilities than stable ones (traits). Thus, in evaluating a test, the examiner should expect higher reliabilities on stable traits or abilities than on changeable states.

2] For example;

A person’s general fund of vocabulary words is highly stable and therefore produces high reliabilities. In contrast, a person’s level of anxiety is often highly changeable. This means examiners should not expect nearly as high reliabilities for anxiety as for an ability measure such as vocabulary. Further consideration also related to the stability of the trait; or, the ability is the method of reliability that uses.

Alternate forms consider giving the lowest estimate of the actual reliability of a test; while split-half provides the highest estimate. Another important way to estimate the adequacy of reliability is by comparing the reliability derived on other similar tests. The examiner can then develop a sense of the expected levels of reliability, which provides a baseline for comparisons.

Result of example;

In the example of anxiety, a clinician may not know what is an acceptable level of reliability. A general estimate can make by comparing the reliability of the test under consideration with other tests measuring the same or a similar variable. The most important thing to keep in mind is that lower levels of reliability usually suggest that less confidence can place in the interpretations and predictions based on the test data.

However, clinical practitioners are less likely to concern with low statistical reliability; if they have some basis for believing the test is a valid measure of the client’s state at the time of testing. The main consideration is that the sign or test score does not mean one thing at one time and something different at another.
April 24, 2017
Library and Internet Research

Understanding and Using the Library and Internet Research

What is Library? A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material and may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or both. A library’s collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, micro-form, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books, audio-books, databases, and other formats. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items.

What is Internet Research? Internet research has had a profound impact on the way ideas are formed and knowledge is created. Common applications of Internet research include personal research on a particular subject (something mentioned on the news, a health problem, etc.), students doing research for academic projects and papers, and journalists and other writers researching stories.

Research is a broad term. Here, it is used to mean “looking something up (on the Web)”. It includes any activity where a topic is identified, and an effort is made to actively gather information for the purpose of furthering understanding. It may include some post-collection analysis like a concern for quality or synthesis.

A third approach to generate new business ideas is to conduct library and Internet research. A natural tendency is to think that an idea should be chosen, and the process of researching the idea should then begin. This approach is too linear. Often, the best ideas emerge when the general notion of an idea, like creating casual electronic games for adults, is merged with extensive library and Internet research, which might provide insights into the best type of casual games to create.

Libraries are often an underutilized source of information for generating business ideas. The best approach to utilizing a library is to discuss your general area of interest with a reference librarian, who can point out useful resources, such as industry-specific magazines, trade journals, and industry reports. Simply browsing through several issues of a trade journal on a topic can spark new ideas. Very powerful search engines and databases are also available through university and large public libraries, which would cost hundreds or thousands of dollars to access on your own. An example is IBIS World (www.ibisworld.com), a company that publishes market research on all major industries and subcategories within industries. IBIS World published a 30-page report on the solar power industry, for example, in March 2011, which includes key statistics (about industry growth and profitability), a complete industry analysis, and an outlook for the future. Spending time reading this report could spark new ideas for solar powered devices or help affirm an existing idea.

Internet research is also important. If you are starting from scratch, simply typing “new business ideas” into Google or Yahoo! will produce links to newspaper and magazine articles about the “hottest” and “latest” new business ideas. Although these types of articles are general in nature, they represent a starting point if you’re trying to generate new business ideas from scratch. If you have a specific idea in mind, a useful technique is to set up a Google or Yahoo! “e-mail alert” using keywords that pertain to your topic of interest. Google and Yahoo! alerts are e-mail updates of the latest Google or Yahoo! results including press releases, news articles, and blog posts based on your topic. This technique, which is available for free, will feed you a daily stream of news articles and Blog postings about specific topics. Another approach is to follow business leaders and experts in the industries you’re interested in on Twitter. The best way to locate people on Twitter you might be interested in following is by typing into the search bar labeled “Who to Follow” relevant keywords preceded by the “#” sign. For example, if you’re interested in solar power, type “#solar power” into the search bar. All the results will be people or companies who tweet about solar power topics.

Once an entrepreneur has an idea, it often needs to be shaped and fine-tuned. One way to do this, in conjunction with the suggestions made previously, is to enlist a mentor to help. An explanation of how to use a mentor in this regard, and where mentors can be found, is described in the “Partnering for Success” feature.

Library VS Internet Research

Many people are confused about what constitutes library research versus what constitutes Internet research. Some people argue that effective research is never conducted on the Internet, that one needs access to the resources of a library to conduct thorough investigations. People in this camp argue that institutional libraries pay significant sums to provide access to proprietary databases to their customers that is, databases that offer abstracts, bibliographical information, and, oftentimes, full texts of articles published in scholarly journals. Also, research purists may argue that documents published on the Internet lack the authority of research that is peer-reviewed and published by major publishers. Something important to consider is the difference between an Internet resource and an academic resource accessed via the Internet. For example, if I simply Google “research method,” one of my first search results is from about.com – a good resource, but not necessarily an academic resource. Although I can glean about.com for useful information about the generics of a topic like “research methods,” for the purposes of an academic research assignment, it may be wise to use the Internet to access my library’s databases (like Academic Search Premier, JSTOR, etc.) for online access to a plethora of information pertaining to my search term. The Internet hosts a variety of resources, some of which are useful for casual, everyday references (like about.com) and others which are more appropriate for an academic research assignment (like my library’s databases: Academic Search Premier, JSTOR, etc.)

Because of a misunderstanding about the way in which the Internet serves both purposes (casual, everyday research and formal, academic research) some students report they never use their library’s resources. Studies of the research processes of students have found that many students limit their investigations to search engines such as Google, paying especially close attention to the first eight or so hits on any search. Unfortunately, students who conduct research in this way often end up with sources that they later realize aren’t useful in crafting informed, thorough, formal academic research and/or arguments.

To conduct effective research, you may need to use both the library and the Internet. Limiting yourself to the library cuts off some very innovative work that may not yet be accessible for your library’s periodical indexes and abstracts. In turn, relying solely on the Internet is like trying to dig a hole with your tongue rather than a shovel: extremely counterproductive and a waste of time.

Information junkies know arguments for using either the library or the Internet are out of touch with reality. As research libraries increase the number of electronic resources they subscribe to, many traditional resources are now accessible via the Internet although passwords may be required. In other words, distinctions between the library and the Web are blurring.

April 11, 2017
What is Efficacy of Activated Processes?

What is Efficacy of Activated Processes?

Much research has been conducted on the four major psychological processes through which self-beliefs of efficacy affect human functioning.

Cognitive Processes

The effects of self-efficacy beliefs on cognitive processes take a variety of forms. Much human behavior, being purposive, is regulated by forethought embodying valued goals. Personal goal setting is influenced by self-appraisal of capabilities. The stronger the perceived self-efficacy, the higher the goal challenges people set for themselves and the firmer is their commitment to them.

Most courses of action are initially organized in thought. People’s beliefs in their efficacy shape the types of anticipatory scenarios they construct and rehearse. Those who have a high sense of efficacy, visualize success scenarios that provide positive guides and supports for performance. Those who doubt their efficacy, visualize failure scenarios and dwell on the many things that can go wrong. It is difficult to achieve much while fighting self-doubt. A major function of thought is to enable people to predict events and to develop ways to control those that affect their lives. Such skills require effective cognitive processing of information that contains many ambiguities and uncertainties. In learning predictive and regulative rules people must draw on their knowledge to construct options, to weight and integrate predictive factors, to test and revise their judgments against the immediate and distal results of their actions, and to remember which factors they had tested and how well they had worked.

It requires a strong sense of efficacy to remain task oriented in the face of pressing situational demands, failures and setbacks that have significant repercussions. Indeed, when people are faced with the tasks of managing difficult environmental demands under taxing circumstances, those who are beset by self-doubts about their efficacy become more and more erratic in their analytic thinking, lower their aspirations and the quality of their performance deteriorates. In contrast, those who maintain a resilient sense of efficacy set themselves challenging goals and use good analytic thinking which pays off in performance accomplishments.

Motivational Processes

Self-beliefs of efficacy play a key role in the self-regulation of motivation. Most human motivation is cognitively generated. People motivate themselves and guide their actions anticipatorily by the exercise of forethought. They form beliefs about what they can do. They anticipate likely outcomes of prospective actions. They set goals for themselves and plan courses of action designed to realize valued futures.

There are three different forms of cognitive motivators around which different theories have been built. They include causal attributions, outcome expectancies, and cognized goals. The corresponding theories are attribution theory, expectancy-value theory and goal theory, respectively. Self-efficacy beliefs operate in each of these types of cognitive motivation. Self-efficacy beliefs influence causal attributions. People who regard themselves as highly efficacious attribute their failures to insufficient effort, those who regard themselves as inefficacious attribute their failures to low ability. Causal attributions affect motivation, performance and affective reactions mainly through beliefs of self-efficacy.

In expectancy-value theory, motivation is regulated by the expectation that a given course of behavior will produce certain outcomes and the value of those outcomes. But people act on their beliefs about what they can do, as well as on their beliefs about the likely outcomes of performance. The motivating influence of outcome expectancies is thus partly governed by self-beliefs of efficacy. There are countless attractive options people do not pursue because they judge they lack the capabilities for them. The predictiveness of expectancy-value theory is enhanced by including the influence of perceived self- efficacy.

The capacity to exercise self-influence by goal challenges and evaluative reaction to one’s own attainments provides a major cognitive mechanism of motivation. A large body of evidence shows that explicit, challenging goals enhance and sustain motivation. Goals operate largely through self-influence processes rather than regulate motivation and action directly. Motivation based on goal setting involves a cognitive comparison process. By making self-satisfaction conditional on matching adopted goals, people give direction to their behavior and create incentives to persist in their efforts until they fulfill their goals. They seek self-satisfaction from fulfilling valued goals and are prompted to intensify their efforts by discontent with substandard performances.

Motivation based on goals or personal standards is governed by three types of self-influences. They include self-satisfying and self-dissatisfying reactions to one’s performance, perceived self-efficacy for goal attainment, and readjustment of personal goals based on one’s progress. Self-efficacy beliefs contribute to motivation in several ways: They determine the goals people set for themselves; how much effort they expend; how long they persevere in the face of difficulties; and their resilience to failures. When faced with obstacles and failures people who harbor self-doubts about their capabilities slacken their efforts or give up quickly. Those who have a strong belief in their capabilities exert greater effort when they fail to master the challenge. Strong perseverance contributes to performance accomplishments.

Affective Processes

People’s beliefs in their coping capabilities affect how much stress and depression they experience in threatening or difficult situations, as well as their level of motivation. Perceived self-efficacy to exercise control over stressors plays a central role in anxiety arousal. People who believe they can exercise control over threats do not conjure up disturbing thought patterns. But those who believe they cannot manage threats experience high anxiety arousal. They dwell on their coping deficiencies. They view many aspects of their environment as fraught with danger. They magnify the severity of possible threats and worry about things that rarely happen. Through such inefficacious thinking they distress themselves and impair their level of functioning. Perceived coping self-efficacy regulates avoidance behavior as well as anxiety arousal. The stronger the sense of self-efficacy the bolder people are in taking on taxing and threatening activities.

Anxiety arousal is affected not only by perceived coping efficacy but by perceived efficacy to control disturbing thoughts. The exercise of control over one’s own consciousness is summed up well in the proverb: “You cannot prevent the birds of worry and care from flying over your head. But you can stop them from building a nest in your head.” Perceived self-efficacy to control thought processes is a key factor in regulating thought produced stress and depression. It is not the sheer frequency of disturbing thoughts but the perceived inability to turn them off that is the major source of distress. Both perceived coping self-efficacy and thought control efficacy operate jointly to reduce anxiety and avoidant behavior.

Social cognitive theory prescribes mastery experiences as the principal means of personality change. Guided mastery is a powerful vehicle for instilling a robust sense of coping efficacy in people whose functioning is seriously impaired by intense apprehension and phobic self-protective reactions. Mastery experiences are structured in ways to build coping skills and instill beliefs that one can exercise control over potential threats. Intractable phobics, of course, are not about to do what they dread. One must, therefore, create an environment so that incapacitated phobics can perform successfully despite themselves. This is achieved by enlisting a variety of performance mastery aids. Feared activities are first modeled to show people how to cope with threats and to disconfirm their worst fears. Coping tasks are broken down into subtasks of easily mastered steps. Performing feared activities together with the therapist further enables phobics to do things they would resist doing by themselves. Another way of overcoming resistance is to use graduated time. Phobics will refuse threatening tasks if they will have to endure stress for a long time. But they will risk them for a short period. As their coping efficacy increases the time they perform the activity is extended. Protective aids and dosing the severity of threats also help to restore and develop a sense of coping efficacy.

After functioning is fully restored, the mastery aids are withdrawn to verify that coping successes stem from personal efficacy rather than from mastery aids. Self-directed mastery experiences, designed to provide varied confirmatory tests of coping capabilities, are then arranged to strengthen and generalize the sense of coping efficacy. Once people develop a resilient sense of efficacy they can withstand difficulties and adversities without adverse effects.

Guided mastery treatment achieves widespread psychological changes in a relatively short time. It eliminates phobic behavior and anxiety and biological stress reactions, creates positive attitudes and eradicates phobic ruminations and nightmares. Evidence that achievement of coping efficacy profoundly affects dream activity is a particularly striking generalized impact.

A low sense of efficacy to exercise control produces depression as well as anxiety. It does so in several different ways. One route to depression is through unfulfilled aspiration. People who impose on themselves standards of self-worth they judge they cannot attain drive themselves to bouts of depression. A second efficacy route to depression is through a low sense of social efficacy. People who judge themselves to be socially efficacious seek out and cultivate social relationships that provide models on how to manage difficult situations, cushion the adverse effects of chronic stressors and bring satisfaction to people’s lives. Perceived social inefficacy to develop satisfying and supportive relationships increases vulnerability to depression through social isolation. Much human depression is cognitively generated by dejecting ruminative thought. A low sense of efficacy to exercise control over ruminative thought also contributes to the occurrence, duration and recurrence of depressive episodes.

Other efficacy-activated processes in the affective domain concern the impact of perceived coping self-efficacy on biological systems that affect health functioning. Stress has been implicated as an important contributing factor to many physical dysfunctions. Controllability appears to be a key organizing principle regarding the nature of these stress effects. It is not stressful life conditions per se, but the perceived inability to manage them that is debilitating. Thus, exposure to stressors with ability to control them has no adverse biological effects. But exposure to the same stressors without the ability to control them impairs the immune system. The impairment of immune function increases susceptibility to infection, contributes to the development of physical disorders and accelerates the progression of disease.

Biological systems are highly interdependent. A weak sense of efficacy to exercise control over stressors activates autonomic reactions, catecholamine secretion and release of endogenous opioids. These biological systems are involved in the regulation of the immune system. Stress activated in the process of acquiring coping capabilities may have different effects than stress experienced in aversive situations with no prospect in sight of ever gaining any self-protective efficacy. There are substantial evolutionary benefits to experiencing enhanced immune function during development of coping capabilities vital for effective adaptation. It would not be evolutionarily advantageous if acute stressors invariably impaired immune function, because of their prevalence in everyday life. If this were the case, people would experience high vulnerability to infective agents that would quickly do them in. There is some evidence that providing people with effective means for managing stressors may have a positive effect on immune function. Moreover, stress aroused while gaining coping mastery over stressors can enhance different components of the immune system.

There are other ways in which perceived self-efficacy serves to promote health. Lifestyle habits can enhance or impair health. This enables people to exert behavioral influence over their vitality and quality of health. Perceived self-efficacy affects every phase of personal change–whether people even consider changing their health habits; whether they enlist the motivation and perseverance needed to succeed should they choose to do so; and how well they maintain the habit changes they have achieved. The stronger the perceived self-regulatory efficacy the more successful people are in reducing health-impairing habits and adopting and integrating health-promoting habits into their regular lifestyle. Comprehensive community programs designed to prevent cardiovascular disease by altering risk-related habits reduce the rate of morbidity and mortality.

Selection Processes

The discussion so far has centered on efficacy-activated processes that enable people to create beneficial environments and to exercise some control over those they encounter day in and day out. People are partly the product of their environment. Therefore, beliefs of personal efficacy can shape the course lives take by influencing they types of activities and environments people choose. People avoid activities and situations they believe exceed their coping capabilities. But they readily undertake challenging activities and select situations they judge themselves capable of handling. By the choices they make, people cultivate different competencies, interests and social networks that determine life courses. Any factor that influences choice behavior can profoundly affect the direction of personal development. This is because the social influences operating in selected environments continue to promote certain competencies, values, and interests long after the efficacy decisional determinant has rendered its inaugurating effect.

Career choice and development is but one example of the power of self-efficacy beliefs to affect the course of life paths through choice-related processes. The higher the level of people’s perceived self-efficacy the wider the range of career options they seriously consider, the greater their interest in them, and the better they prepare themselves educationally for the occupational pursuits they choose and the greater is their success. Occupations structure a good part of people’s lives and provide them with a major source of personal growth.

April 2, 2017