Tag: Notes

  • What are Source of Attributional Information?

    What are Source of Attributional Information?

    How do we decide what caused our success and failure? What cues do we use to explain whether an outcome was influenced by our ability, effort, or some other factor? Information comes from direct and indirect cues (Graham, 1991). Some information comes from direct cues, like failing a test when other students succeeded. Information is also obtained from more indirect cues, often conveyed unintentionally, such as when a teacher communicates pity to a student who failed a test. In addition, there may be a bias toward causes (Weiner, 1992).

    Direct Attributional Cues

    One of the most important informational cues is the outcome of the task. Here students have a direct cue as to their performance. Another source of attributional information comes from comparing one’s performance to that of others (Weiner, 1992). When most of the class fails a test, students are likely to attribute the failure to the difficulty of the task, not to their ability. However, if Sam failed and everyone else in the class made an A or B, he is likely to believe the failure was due to his low ability. If Sarah fails a test and a peer says, “I didn’t study at all and I made an A,” Sarah may take this as a cue that failure must be due to her ability. When a teacher sees students comparing grades on a test, information other than the test score is being communicated. An important role of the teacher is to help students interpret the possible reasons for test scores and make an adaptive attribution.

    Indirect Attributional Cues

    In school, feedback that students receive from teachers is a source of much information about ability. Students’ attributional interpretations may be based on the attributions that teachers communicated to them (Reyna, 2000). Graham (1991) identified three groups of feedback as sources of indirect cues: praise versus blame, sympathy versus anger, and help versus neglect.

    Praise Versus Blame: The praise or blame a student receives from a teacher can function as an indirect low-ability cue (Graham, 1991). The cue provided by praise or blame interacts with the difficulty of the task and effort expended by a student. Praise acts as a low-ability cue when a student is praised for completing an easy task. A low-ability cue is also conveyed when a student fails a task but receives no blame, like lack of effort. The student can interpret this to mean, “There’s nothing I can do about the failure.”

    Sympathy Versus Anger: Did it ever occur to you that communicating sympathy to a student could be interpreted as evidence that he or she has the low ability? Graham (1984) found that when teachers conveyed sympathy following poor student performance, the failing students took this as a cue that they had low ability. Obviously a statement like “I feel sorry for you because you made such a low score” would be a low-ability cue. What might a teacher say that unintentionally conveys a message of low ability to a student? One student remembers a class being told, “All students have to do this except Holly and Ramon.” Holly took her omission as a cue that she would not be able to do the task. In contrast, mild anger for failure can provide an indirect cue that one is capable. For example, “You can do better than this. You handed this paper in with no editing,” provides a cue to the student that he or she is capable of more.

    Unsolicited Help: Another low-ability cue for students is unsolicited help by the teacher (Graham & Barker, 1990). Graham and Barker found that, regardless of whether a helper was a peer or teacher, other students judged the student who received unsolicited help as lower in ability than non-helped peers. The important factor in this example is unsolicited. When the teacher consistently gives help to Sylvia before she requests it, this suggests that the teacher knows that she will not be able to do it.

    Ability Grouping: One powerful cue for ability that affects large groups of students are tracking according to ability groups. Students in both high and low tracks are defined by labels such as high ability, honors, low-achieving, slow, and average (Oakes, 1985). These labels are powerful cues about one’s ability. Oakes observed that students in the lower track are usually seen by others as dumb and also see themselves in this way. A label may have an adverse effect on students in the high-achieving class as well. Students in a high-track class may take this label as a cue that they naturally have high ability and then assume inflated self-concepts. This belief can interfere with students working to develop their academic skills.

    It is important that teachers be aware of the subtle cues that may have unintentional effects on students’ perception of ability. Commonly accepted practices of generous praise, minimal blame, sympathy, and unsolicited help can sometimes be interpreted by students as they have the low ability (M. D. Clark, 1997; Graham, 1991). M. D. Clark found that responses given to students with LD are often interpreted as low-ability cues. Graham further suggested that these cues raise important questions pertinent to the motivation of minority students such as African-Americans. For example, are minority students more likely to be targeted for feedback that conveys sympathy—thus receiving a cue for low ability? Reyna (2000) took this a step further, stating that labeling and indirect cues can lead to stable beliefs about ability and have the negative effect of stereotyping.

    Attribution Bias

    Attribution bias or Attributional bias is a predisposition to make certain attributional judgments that may be in error (Weiner, 1985). Several variations of attributional bias have been identified that are relevant to achievement settings. A common misjudgment is a hedonic bias, the tendency to attribute success to self rather than to attribute failure to self (Weiner, 2000).

    Previous knowledge can also lead to attributions that are erroneous (Frieze, 1980). Potential sources of errors in attributional judgments can be found in stereotypes about certain groups (Reyna, 2000). These preconceptions about certain groups can serve as ready-made explanations for why a student achieves or does not achieve. There is a danger that the stable, uncontrollable attribution for low performance will lead to lower expectations.

    The implication for educators is to recognize that a number of possible causes may explain any given success or failure. Thus, it is important to be aware of potential stereotypical attributional biases. Explore other possible causes by gathering more information when bias may be a factor (see Strategy).

    Strategy of Collect Attributional Information

    Simply ask students why they succeeded, failed, or improved.

    Some teachers elicit information by having students give their reasons for how well they did after assignments or exams.

    Attribution information can be obtained through the use of learning logs, in which students keep records and write about their goals, successes, and failures.

    Conduct an attributional task analysis of student performance. Is it because the student cannot or will not? A teacher may believe that a student is not performing well because he or she has the low ability or is lazy. Instead, the student may be performing low because he or she does not have the essential skills.

    Look for clues that will enable you to determine if the student has the essential skills. Does the student have prerequisite knowledge or skills? Does the task require formal reasoning whereas the student is functioning at the concrete reasoning level? Does the student have the necessary learning or memory strategies?

    If the student cannot, then teach the prerequisite skill or guide student to the appropriate source of help.

  • DNA Structure

    What is DNA Structure?

    What do a human, a rose, and a bacterium have in common? Each of these things along with every other organism on Earth contains the molecular instructions for life, called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. Encoded within this DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) are the directions for traits as diverse as the color of a person’s eyes, the scent of a rose, and the way in which bacteria infect a lung cell.

    DNA is found in nearly all living cells. However, its exact location within a cell depends on whether that cell possesses a special membrane-bound organelle called a nucleus. Organisms composed of cells that contain nuclei are classified as eukaryotes, whereas organisms composed of cells that lack nuclei are classified as prokaryotes. In eukaryotes, DNA is housed within the nucleus, but in prokaryotes, DNA is located directly within the cellular cytoplasm, as there is no nucleus available.

    But what, exactly, is DNA? In short, DNA is a complex molecule that consists of many components, a portion of which are passed from parent organisms to their offspring during the process of reproduction. Although each organism’s DNA is unique, all DNA is composed of the same nitrogen-based molecules. So how does DNA differ from organism to organism? It is simply the order in which these smaller molecules are arranged that differs among individuals. In turn, this pattern of arrangement ultimately determines each organism’s unique characteristics, thanks to another set of molecules that “read” the pattern and stimulate the chemical and physical processes it calls for.

    DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group, and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines DNA’s instructions, or genetic code. Similar to the way the order of letters in the alphabet can be used to form a word, the order of nitrogen bases in a DNA sequence forms genes, which in the language of the cell, tells cells how to make proteins. Another type of nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, translates genetic information from DNA into proteins.

    The entire human genome contains about 3 billion bases and about 20,000 genes. Nucleotides are attached together to form two long strands that spiral to create a structure called a double helix. If you think of the double helix structure as a ladder, the phosphate and sugar molecules would be the sides, while the bases would be the rungs. The bases on one strand pair with the bases on another strand: adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine.

    DNA molecules are long so long, in fact, that they can’t fit into cells without the right packaging. To fit inside cells, DNA is coiled tightly to form structures we call chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a single DNA molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are found inside the cell’s nucleus.

    Why does a DNA molecule consist of two strands? The primary function of DNA is to store and transmit genetic information. To accomplish this function DNA must have two properties. It must be chemically stable so as to reduce the possibility of damage. DNA must also be capable of copying the information it contains. The two-stranded structure of DNA gives it both of these properties. The nucleotide sequence contains the information found in DNA. The nucleotides connect the two strands through hydrogen bonds. Because each nucleotide has a unique complementary nucleotide, each strand contains all the information required to synthesize a new DNA molecule. The double-stranded structure also makes the molecule more stable.

    DNA is the information molecule. It stores instructions for making other large molecules, called proteins. These instructions are stored inside each of your cells, distributed among 46 long structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are made up of thousands of shorter segments of DNA, called genes. Each gene stores the directions for making protein fragments, whole proteins, or multiple specific proteins.

    DNA is well-suited to perform this biological function because of its molecular structure, and because of the development of a series of high-performance enzymes that are fine-tuned to interact with this molecular structure in specific ways. The match between DNA structure and the activities of these enzymes is so effective and well-refined that DNA has become, over evolutionary time, the universal information-storage molecule for all forms of life. Nature has yet to find a better solution than DNA for storing, expressing, and passing along instructions for making proteins.

    Alternative DNA structures

    DNA Structure A-DNA B-DNA and Z-DNA
    DNA Structure A-DNA B-DNA and Z-DNA

    DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA forms, although, only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions, and the presence of polyamines in solution.

    The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns—and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson transforms that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternative analysis was then proposed by Wilkins et al., in 1953, for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions. In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double-helix.

    Although the B-DNA form is most common under the conditions found in cells, it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in living cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular para crystals with a significant degree of disorder.

    Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription.

  • LNA (Locked Nucleic Acid)

    LNA (Locked Nucleic Acid)

    What is an LNA? A locked nucleic acid (LNA), often referred to as inaccessible RNA, is a modified RNA nucleotide. The ribose moiety of an LNA nucleotide is modified with an extra bridge connecting the 2′ oxygen and 4′ carbon. The bridge “locks” the ribose in the 3′-endo (North) conformation, which is often found in the A-form duplexes. LNA nucleotides can be mixed with DNA or RNA residues in the oligonucleotide whenever desired and hybridize with DNA or RNA according to Watson-Crick base-pairing rules. Such oligomers are synthesized chemically and are commercially available. The locked ribose conformation enhances base stacking and backbone pre-organization. This significantly increases the hybridization properties (melting temperature) of oligonucleotides. LNA was independently synthesized by the group of Jesper Wengel in 1998, soon after the first synthesis by the group of Takeshi Imanishi in 1997. The exclusive rights to the LNA technology were secured in 1997 by Exiqon A/S, a Danish biotech company.

    LNA nucleotides are used to increase the sensitivity and specificity of expression in DNA microarrays, FISH probes, quantitative PCR probes and other molecular biology techniques based on oligonucleotides. For the in situ detection of miRNA, the use of LNA is currently (2005) the only efficient method. A triplet of LNA nucleotides surrounding a single-base mismatch site maximizes LNA probe specificity unless the probe contains the guanine base of G-T mismatch.

    Using LNA-based oligonucleotides therapeutically is an emerging field of biotechnology. The Danish pharmaceutical company Santaris Pharma a/s owns the sole rights to therapeutic uses of LNA technology and is now developing a new, LNA-based, hepatitis C drug called miravirsen, targeting miR-122, which is in Phase II clinical testing as of late 2010.

    Definition of an LNA?

    Locked nucleic acid (LNA) is a nucleic acid analogue containing one or more LNA nucleotide monomers with a bicyclic furanose unit locked in an RNA mimicking sugar conformation. LNA oligonucleotides display unprecedented hybridization affinity toward complementary single-stranded RNA and complementary single- or double-stranded DNA. Structural studies have shown that LNA oligonucleotides induce A-type (RNA-like) duplex conformations. The wide applicability of LNA oligonucleotides for gene silencing and their use for research and diagnostic purposes are documented in a number of recent reports, some of which are described herein.

    LNA Locked Nucleic Acid analogues

    What is an LNA?

    LNA (Locked Nucleic Acids) are synthetic modified nucleic acids where the carbohydrate part of the nucleic acid has been synthetically changed. The modification results in an increased bonding strength between the DNA-bases in a double-helix when one of the DNA-bases has been modified. The overall result is a higher melting point of a DNA double-helix containing LNA-modified nucleic acids and thereby an increased stability. By designing the complementary DNA-strand in a double helix so it consists more or less of LNA-units, it is possible to regulate the rate of transcription – even to block it completely. In this way, it is possible to control the expression of genes and thereby the synthesis of selected proteins. The LNA technology is, therefore, a promising tool in the treatment of diseases which originate from genetic defects.

  • RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

    RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

    Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information (using the letters G, U, A, and C to denote the nitrogenous bases guanine, uracil, adenine, and cytosine) that directs the synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome.

    Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling gene expression, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of these active processes is protein synthesis, a universal function where RNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes. This process uses transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to deliver amino acids to the ribosome, where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) then links amino acids together to form proteins.

    Ribonucleic acid is a linear molecule composed of four types of smaller molecules called ribonucleotide bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U). RNA is often compared to a copy from a reference book, or a template, because it carries the same information as its DNA template but is not used for long-term storage.

    Each ribonucleotide base consists of a ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Adjacent ribose nucleotide bases are chemically attached to one another in a chain via chemical bonds called phosphodiester bonds. Unlike DNA, RNA is usually single-stranded. Additionally, RNA contains ribose sugars rather than deoxyribose sugars, which makes RNA more unstable and more prone to degradation.

    RNA is synthesized from DNA by an enzyme known as RNA polymerase during a process called transcription. The new RNA sequences are complementary to their DNA template, rather than being identical copies of the template. RNA is then translated into proteins by structures called ribosomes. There are three types of RNA involved in the translation process: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

    Although some RNA molecules are passive copies of DNA, many plays crucial, active roles in the cell. For example, some RNA molecules are involved in switching genes on and off, and other RNA molecules make up the critical protein synthesis machinery in ribosomes.

    “Research on RNA has led to many important biological discoveries and numerous Nobel Prizes. Nucleic acids were discovered in 1868 by Friedrich Miescher, who called the material ‘nuclein’ since it was found in the nucleus. It was later discovered that prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, also contain nucleic acids. The role of RNA in protein synthesis was suspected already in 1939. Severo Ochoa won the 1959 Nobel Prize in Medicine (shared with Arthur Kornberg) after he discovered an enzyme that can synthesize RNA in the laboratory. However, the enzyme discovered by Ochoa (polynucleotide phosphorylase) was later shown to be responsible for RNA degradation, not RNA synthesis. In 1956 Alex Rich and David Davies hybridized two separate strands of RNA to form the first crystal of RNA whose structure could be determined by X-ray crystallography.”

    What is meaning of RNA?

    Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins, although in some viruses RNA rather than DNA carries the genetic information.

    What is Definition of RNA?

    RNA

    RNA is a Ribonucleic Acid and is same copy of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid).

    What is RNA?

    Ribonucleic acid or RNA is one of the three major biological macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life (along with DNA and proteins). A central tenet of molecular biology states that the flow of genetic information in a cell is from DNA through RNA to proteins: “DNA makes RNA makes protein”. Proteins are the workhorses of the cell; they play leading roles in the cell as enzymes, as structural components, and in cell signaling, to name just a few. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is considered the “blueprint” of the cell; it carries all of the genetic information required for the cell to grow, to take in nutrients, and to propagate. RNA–in this role–is the “DNA photocopy” of the cell. When the cell needs to produce a certain protein, it activates the protein’s gene–the portion of DNA that codes for that protein–and produces multiple copies of that piece of DNA in the form of messenger RNA, or mRNA. The multiple copies of mRNA are then used to translate the genetic code into protein through the action of the cell’s protein manufacturing machinery, the ribosomes. Thus, RNA expands the quantity of a given protein that can be made at one time from one given gene, and it provides an important control point for regulating when and how much protein gets made.

    For many years RNA was believed to have only three major roles in the cell–as a DNA photocopy (mRNA), as a coupler between the genetic code and the protein building blocks (tRNA), and as a structural component of ribosomes (rRNA). In recent years, however, we have begun to realize that the roles adopted by RNA are much broader and much more interesting. We now know that RNA can also act as enzymes (called ribozymes) to speed chemical reactions. In a number of clinically important virus’s RNA, rather than DNA, carries the viral genetic information. RNA also plays an important role in regulating cellular processes–from cell division, differentiation and growth to cell aging and death. Defects in certain RNAs or the regulation of RNAs have been implicated in a number of important human diseases, including heart disease, some cancers, stroke, and many others.

  • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

    DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

    Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), they are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. DNA Structure, History of DNA Research.

    What is DNA?

    We all know that elephants only give birth to little elephants, giraffes to giraffes, dogs to dogs and so on for every type of living creature. But why is this so? The answer lies in a molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the biological instructions that make each species unique. DNA, along with the instructions it contains, is passed from adult organisms to their offspring during reproduction. History of DNA Research.

    What is meaning of DNA?

    DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, sometimes called “the molecule of life,” as almost all organisms have their genetic material codified as DNA. Since each person’s DNA is unique, “DNA typing” is a valuable tool in connecting suspects to crime scenes. You can also use the word less scientifically, as in “it’s just not in my DNA to sit through six hours of meetings.”

    You got your DNA from your parents, we call it ‘hereditary material’ (information that is passed on to the next generation). Nobody else in the world will have DNA the same as you, unless you have an identical twin. Deoxyribonucleic acid is a large molecule in the shape of a double helix. That’s a bit like a ladder that’s been twisted many times.

    The two DNA strands are termed polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler monomer units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases either cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T) and a sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together (according to base pairing rules (A with T, and C with G) with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 trillion tons of carbon (TTC).

    DNA stores biological information. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information. This information is replicated as and when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.

    The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription. Under the genetic code, these RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation.

    Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.

    DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Its molecular structure was identified by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, whose model-building efforts were guided by X-ray diffraction data acquired by Raymond Gosling who was a post-graduate student of Rosalind Franklin. DNA is used by researchers as a molecular tool to explore physical laws and theories, such as the ergodic theorem and the theory of elasticity. The unique material properties of DNA have made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro- and nano-fabrication. Among notable advances in this field are DNA origami and DNA-based hybrid materials. And also read it DNA Structure, History of DNA Research.

  • What is Master the Art of Scheduling?

    What is Master the Art of Scheduling?

    “Where are you on the schedule?” Develop the ability to predict the amount of time as a sequence of key tasks that a project should take. And yet we all work with software developers who hate the pressure of committing to a schedule because to complete work usually takes “as long as it takes.” But you can’t effectively run a business without the confidence to work toward a schedule.

    When you recognize the value of time management skills, you become the overseer of your life, with your schedule as your command center. Many people think that creating a schedule is as easy as jotting down the time and activity on a piece of paper. However, scheduling is so much more than that.

    A well-planned schedule of everyday tasks is more than just a reminder of what needs to be done. It also allows you to make time for important tasks that are in line with your goals. It makes you become aware of how you spend your time each day. It helps you to recognize areas that need adjustments so that you can achieve balance between your personal life and your profession. So how should you schedule your time each day? What are the tools you need to become a “master scheduler?” Here are the strategies to learn:

    Gather Your Scheduling Tools

    In general, you would need three essential scheduling tools, and these are:

    A daily planner,

    A weekly planner, and

    A monthly planner

    The daily planner helps to keep you on the right track each day. It enables you to concentrate on exactly what tasks need to be done and how much time you have for each.

    The weekly planner serves as your overview of the events planned out for that week as well as the tasks that you need to accomplish. It helps you get to see what is ahead of you, because focusing only on the everyday tasks might cause you to forget about what is in store for tomorrow, or the day after that.

    Now, you might think that you do not need a monthly planner if you have a weekly one. However, it always helps to have all the dates of the month laid out on a single page. This will enable you to see the important dates of that month and plan your week and days around them.

    However, it is possible to keep a monthly planner without the weekly planner. Just make sure that there is enough space for you to jot down your weekly tasks on the monthly planner.

    There are plenty of planners whether digital or printed out there, so choose your layout carefully. Most of the time, you will find that many planners already have daily, weekly, and monthly sections. This is helpful, especially if you want to carry your planner around. Take care not to purchase more than one type of planner, because you would only end up feeling confused as to which one you should write your next set of tasks.

    One suggestion on how to organize your different planners is that you should have a portable daily planner, and a desktop or wall-mounted weekly and/or monthly planner. This is because you will likely need to check your daily planner constantly throughout the day, while you only need to jot things down and review your weekly/monthly planner once a week. A large monthly planner is helpful as well, because you will want to see everything at a single glance.

    Once you have your scheduling tools, the next step is to create a scheduling routine.

    Create a Scheduling Routine

    Do you take time at the end of each day to plan for the following day? If you do not, then now is the best time to build this habit. A master scheduler should set aside a time each day to plan for tomorrow, each week for the week ahead, and each month to review everything and plan for the next month.

    In most cases, it will only take ten to twenty minutes to plan for the following day and thirty minutes to plan for the week and month ahead. However, the time you would invest in planning will save you from many problems in the future.

    After you have set a fixed “scheduling” time, you should then establish a routine on how to schedule your time. Here are the recommended steps:

    1. Time-block non-negotiable appointments

    Certain parts of the day may be out of your control; such as board meetings or dentist appointments. You should secure them all first, otherwise you might end up with overlapping appointments.

    It must be emphasized that you should also time-block the hours when you will be sleeping. Have to establish a fixed sleeping schedule to stay healthy and sharp the following day. Do not rob yourself of sleeping hours by cramming on certain tasks. Instead, focus on planning your day carefully so that you will have time to accomplish them all.

    1. Schedule your Important Tasks

    At this point, you would be able to see the times lots during the day when you do not have anything scheduled yet. If so, then you can refer to your list of priorities to allocate the different tasks into your day, week, or month.

    For example, if your most important task for the day is to write a thousand words for your personal book project, and if you do not have anything scheduled between seven and ten a.m., then you can block this task within this time.

    1. Schedule your Urgent Tasks

    After you have secured the times lots for your important tasks, you should then move on to blocking in the urgent ones. It helps to use a different colored-pen or highlighter to separate the important from the urgent.

    Do not forget to factor in breaks and an allowance in time for emergencies. In other words, you should never time-block one task after another without at least ten minutes of contingency time. This way, you will not be behind schedule in the next task when there was an unexpected extension in the task before it.

    Here is an example:

    •             Important Task —- 7:00 am to 9:00 am
    •             Contingency Time —- 9:00 am to 9:15 am
    •             Urgent Task —- 9:15 am to 11:30 am
    1. Review your schedule and make adjustments if necessary

    Once you have your entire day planned out, you can go back and assess your schedule as a whole. If you notice that you have spread yourself too thin, consider delegating certain tasks to others, rescheduling them, or canceling them altogether. Once you are satisfied with your schedule, the only thing left to do is to take action.

    As with any other skill, it takes constant practice to become better at scheduling and managing your time well. Nevertheless, it takes more than just scheduling and planning to do a great job every day without feeling burned out. That is because you also need to develop an efficient system. Read the post How to Make Establish an Efficient System? to learn more about that.

  • How to Learn of Hone Your Ability to Concentrate?

    How to Learn of Hone Your Ability to Concentrate?

    The ability to concentrate is a skill that becomes stronger over time. Through constant practice, you will be able to concentrate more effectively for an extended period of time. However, if you constantly find it difficult to focus on tasks, or if you find yourself wasting your time on unimportant activities, then you need to address this problem as soon as possible.

    Ability: Human Resource Management; An acquired or natural capacity or talent that enables an individual to perform a particular job or task successfully. See also aptitude. Law; The power to carry out a legal act or satisfy a legal obligation.

    Concentrate: A concentrate is a form of substance which has had the majority of its base component (in the case of a liquid: the solvent) removed. Typically, this will be the removal of water from a solution or suspension, such as the removal of water from fruit juice. One benefit of producing a concentrate is that of a reduction in weight and volume for transportation, as the concentrate can be reconstituted at the time of usage by the addition of the solvent. Completely different to clustered.

    The good news is that there are tested-and-proven tips on how you can concentrate better. Apply the following tips and notice how you will then be able to finish your important tasks on time.

    Eliminate distractions

    Distractions come in all shapes and sizes. It could be the uncomfortable chair you are sitting on, the messy desk you have to work on, or the loud noises from outside. Whatever your case may be, it is important to get rid of them before you begin your task. That way, you can no longer use them as an excuse to procrastinate.

    Here are some suggestions:

    I. Hang up a “do not disturb” sign.

    II. Play instrumental “concentration enhancing” music to drown out the background noise.

    III. Set your phone on silent mode and store it away.

    IV. Block certain websites that keep you from focusing.

    Focus on one task at a time

    Multi-tasking keeps you from being able to provide quality output. It also stresses your mind out, whether you are aware of it or not. This is because you are not really “accomplishing” multiple things at once, but rather you are rapidly switching from one task to another.

    Instead, set aside a time block for a particular task and do absolutely nothing else except that task within that time frame. You could even set a timer so that you will not have to glance at the clock every now and then to check how much time you have left.

    Take short breaks between tasks

    Most people – even the most productive ones out there – can concentrate on an important task for no more than two hours at a time. Likewise, it takes approximately fifteen minutes of rest to replenish this concentration “energy.” Therefore, you can use this as a rule of thumb to schedule breaks.

    For instance, after working non-stop on a task for two hours straight, set a timer to signal you to take a fifteen-minute break. Then, do something relaxing, such as taking a walk or having a snack. After fifteen minutes, you will be ready to take on another two-hour long task, give or take.

    Focus on challenging tasks during your peak hours

    Identify which part of the day you feel most confident and energized, and use this time to work on the tasks that require the most concentration. For most people, mornings are the times when they feel as if they can handle anything. For others, this happens during the evenings when everyone else is exhausted from work.

    Reward yourself after accomplishing a challenging task

    Our minds are programmed to repeat a certain behavior if we are rewarded for it. Therefore, to condition yourself to practice improving your concentration each day, do not forget to reward yourself after a job well done. It could be something as simple as playing a video game for an hour, watching an episode of your favorite television show, or enjoying a delicious, albeit sinful, snack. That way, you can be more driven to finish the task so that you can get your reward.

    Aside from these tips, it always helps to remind yourself to take good care of your body. Always make it a priority to get enough hours of sleep, eat nutritious meals, and hydrate throughout the day. When your body is healthy and full of energy, it is only natural for your mind to be sharp and focused.

    At this point, you must be excited to start working on your tasks. However, you might want to learn how to manage your schedule first, especially if you have multiple tasks to handle each day. Find out how you can acquire this skill in the post What is Master the Art of Scheduling?

  • How to Make Establish an Efficient System?

    How to Make Establish an Efficient System?

    Efficient (of a system or machine) achieving maximum productivity with minimum wasted effort or expense, preventing the wasteful use of a particular resource. Working in a well-organized and competent way. Performing or functioning in the best possible manner with the least waste of time and effort; having and using requisite knowledge, skill, and industry.

    Abraham Lincoln once gave a sound piece of advice regarding productivity. He said, “Give me six hours to chop down a tree and I will spend the first four sharpening the Axe.”

    It is apparent that he means that he can do a much more efficient job with the right tool. On the other hand, chopping away on the tree with a dull Axe might cut it down as well, but less efficiently and probably for a longer period of time. In other words, the best way to make the most of your time is by establishing an efficient system. To be more specific, you should first create the most conducive environment, and choosing the best tools, for the task.

    To help you establish an efficient system, there are two main things to do. The first one is to choose the right tools you need to accomplish the task in the best possible way. The second is to organize the space in which you will be doing the task.

    Choose the Best Tools for the Task

    Can you tell off the bat which tools you need the most to accomplish certain tasks? If you cannot, try remembering the following guidelines:

    1. The tool should be the most user-friendly.

    While this does not apply to all cases, it helps to remember to go back to the basics. Often, the tool that is easiest to use is also the more efficient. It does not require much time to learn how to use it and to manipulate it.

    An example of a simple, user-friendly time management tool is the to Do list. It is simple as jotting down tasks on a piece of paper and crossing them out once you are done.

    1. The tool should help you focus.

    Some people who want to enhance their time management skills often tend to buy a number of “organizational tools,” such as planners, calendars, and so on, but then end up not using most of them at all. Worse, some would attempt to use them all at once and end up confused. Therefore, the best solution is to pick no more than one tool you will truly use for a particular project, goal, or task, and then stick to it.

    1. The tool should be the most efficient and effective.

    If a tool requires too much time to set up before you can use it, then it had better be four times more efficient than the other models. Otherwise, you would only end up accumulating wasted time from using it. The bottom-line is to choose a tool that will strike a balance between efficiency and effectiveness by looking at how well it can help you with the task and how quickly it can be used.

    Aside from these, other factors you can consider are accessibility, cost, visibility, and so on, depending on the specific tools you need. After all, some tools are to be used for personal goals and tasks, while others are for professional use or team projects. Nevertheless, it helps to keep these three core guidelines in mind before you decide to choose a certain tool for your project.

    Organize and Develop an Efficient Work Space

    A space that is clean and organized does not just mean it is neat and tidy. Rather, it expands to keeping only the things you need in sight. Everything else that does not serve any purpose to your goal is merely a distraction. This rule applies not just to your physical surroundings, but your digital space as well.

    You can achieve this by taking these simple steps:

    1. Clear all the items off the area first. This will make it easier for you to separate the items and tools you want to use from the ones that only serve as distraction.

    For instance, if your computer desktop is cluttered with all sorts of icons and folders, then create a folder and label it “Mess.” After that, move everything into it in one full sweep.

    1. Re-build or re-organize the area by choosing the tools that you need. Everything else must be removed or stored away more efficiently.

    If we go back to the same example, when you are left with a clear desktop, you can then choose from the “Mess” folder the ones you need for a particular project or goal. Everything else can be deleted or sorted out until you can safely delete the “Mess” folder.

    1. Develop an efficient system for your project or goal.

    Now that only the tools you need remain in the area, your final step is to use them to create an efficient system. It is important to ensure that the system is simple, easy to use, and effective, because you may be using it so often it becomes a habit.

    Let us say you make a living as a medical transcriptionist. Since your desktop is now uncluttered, you now only have your transcribing tool, a spreadsheet icon of a file that helps you track your progress, and folder of projects on it. Your final step is to systematize how you work so that you can maximize your time and efficiency. It can be simple, such as:

    Step 1: Click the spreadsheet icon to monitor and review project.

    Step 2: Open transcribing tool.

    Step 3: Open project to be transcribed.

    Step 4: Put on headset, adjust volume, and start transcribing.

    Once your tools and system are polished and organized, it is guaranteed that all the tasks you need to accomplish will become easier to do. All you need to do at this point is to take action.

  • How to Set the Right Goals?

    How to Set the Right Goals?

    A goal is a desired result or possible outcome that a person or a system envisions, plans and commits to achieve: a personal or organizational desired end-point in some sort of assumed development. Many people endeavor to reach goals within a finite time by setting deadlines.

    It is roughly similar to purpose or aim, the anticipated result which guides reaction, or an end, which is an object, either a physical object or an abstract object, that has intrinsic value.

    Setting the Goals

    Goal setting may involve establishing specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bounded (SMART) objectives, but not all researchers agree that these SMART criteria are necessary.

    Research on goal setting by Edwin A. Locke and his colleagues suggests that goal setting can serve as an effective tool for making progress when it ensures that group members have a clear awareness of what each person must do to achieve a shared objective. On a personal level, the process of setting goals allows individuals to specify and then work toward their own objectives (such as financial or career-based goals). Goal-setting comprises a major component of personal development and management.

    Goals can be long-term, intermediate, or short-term. The primary difference is the time required to achieve them.

    Short-term goals

    Short-term goals expect accomplishment in a short period of time, such as trying to get a bill paid in the next few days. The definition of a short-term goal need not relate to any specific length of time. In other words, one may achieve (or fail to achieve) a short-term goal in a day, week, month, year, etc. The time-frame for a short-term goal relates to its context in the overall time line that it is being applied to. For instance, one could measure a short-term goal for a month-long project in days; whereas one might measure a short-term goal for someone’s lifetime in months or in years. Planners usually define short-term goals in relation to long-term goals.

    In any endeavor, the first step is to establish a clear goal. The more detailed and clear it is, the easier it will be for you to make choices and establish steps that you need to take towards accomplishing it.

    However, before getting into the subject of setting goals, let us first talk about the Goal-Setting Theory of Locke and Latham. Learning this will help you visualize the results that you truly want and need.

    Dr. Edwin Locke, the author of the article “Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives”, published in 1968, explained that people become motivated towards doing their job when they are given clear goals as well as proper feedback. He also pointed that having a specific and challenging goal motivates people to boost their performance.

    Twelve years later, Locke and Dr. Gary Latham published “A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance,” their seminal work. It not only highlighted the significance of setting definite and challenging goals, but also provided five key components that will guide you to set them successfully. These are Clarity, Challenge, Commitment, Feedback, and Task Complexity. Here are the steps on how you can use them:

    Establish clear goals.

    It is important to be detailed with what you want to accomplish. By doing so, you can track your progress and determine which areas you need to improve on and which ones are helping you to get closer to your goal.

    Perhaps the most efficient way to establish goals is by applying the SMART criteria. This was first explained by George T. Doran in the November 1981 issue of Management Review. It has since become the primary tool used in setting goals.

    “SMART” stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable (or Assignable), Relevant, and Time-bound. Here is how you can apply each criterion:

    1. Specific – the goal has to be so clear it leaves no room for doubt. Detail what is important to you, what you expect from it, how you will know when it happens, and so on.
    2. Measurable – this puts emphasis on the need for measurable factors to help determine whether you are improving or not. Without measurable factors, you would find it impossible to stay motivated.
    3. Assignable or Achievable – a goal may be specific and measurable, but it can be unachievable if it is unrealistic. It is important to ensure that you can either achieve the goal-related tasks yourself, or assign some of the tasks to someone who can.
    4. Relevant – it is important to work towards a goal that is in line with your principles and purpose in life. For instance, you can consider whether the goal is worth the time, energy, and resources and if it is of true value to you.
    5. Time-bound – a time frame is an essential part of goal setting, because it helps you commit and increases your focus. A goal that is not time-bound is usually shipped off to “someday” land and never seen again. Therefore, you must set a target date.

    Here is an example of a SMART goal: “I will finish writing the first draft of my twenty-thousand-word romance fiction novel entitled “Oceans Away from Sarah” before December 25, 2016.”

    Set the Right Goals

    Ensure that the goals are challenging

    The more challenging yet realistic a goal is, the more motivated you will be to accomplish it. First, consider whether the goal you want makes you feel excited. Why does the thought of accomplishing it makes you feel good? Visualize the goal and determine the steps you need to take to turn it into a reality.

    Commit yourself to the goal

    Committing to your goal means that you are going to devote your time, energy, and resources to accomplish it. It also means you recognize its importance in your life and that you will not give up. It also helps to remember that plans can change, but the goal should remain the same.

    Track your Progress to Get Feedback

    As you work towards your goal, you must continuously enhance your skills, plans, and tools. That way, you can become even more efficient and effective. The only way to know how and what to improve on is by receiving feedback.

    Feedback is easily given by a team leader and one’s peers in major projects, but if you are on your own, then you need to track your own progress to receive it. Therefore, you must create a way to measure your progress as soon as you start working towards your goal. Through these standards, you can determine how far along you are.

    Calibrate the complexity of the task

    If a certain task towards your goal is too challenging it becomes unrealistic, you can take a step back and make the necessary adjustments. In other words, do not charge head-on if you are unprepared for it, because you will only end up feeling too pressured. This is dangerous, because it can cause you to give up altogether.

    Instead, consider the factors that are causing the task to be too complex. Reflect on whether you need more time, additional skills, or better tools for it. Maybe you need to break it down into smaller, more manageable parts. It is also possible that you need to delegate it to an expert. All these adjustments may even help you achieve your goal more efficiently.

    Once you have established a clear goal, the next step is to generate tasks that are in line with it. By doing so, you would then be able to determine the time you need to accomplish it. How to Set Your Organize Priorities? posts will help you to identify which tasks are important each day, and which ones to set aside.

  • How to Set Your Organize Priorities?

    How to Set Your Organize Priorities?

    There are specific skills and steps that you can learn to effectively manage multiple priorities and to actually assess which activities you need to work on first then next in order to tame your daily and weekly schedule. I’ve tried to organize the best time management advice I can find into one place and make it “research administrator-friendly.”

    The ability to prioritize is highly important in terms of achieving your goal. It helps you to identify and focus only on the essential tasks. It frees you from falling into procrastination or getting distracted by less important tasks. By harnessing this skill, you will be less stressed and a lot more organized and put-together.

    To become proficient in prioritizing, you can start by applying former U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle.

    Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle

    In 1954, he mentioned that there are “two kinds of problems: the urgent and the important. The urgent are not important, and the important are never urgent.” In this sense, these two concepts can be defined as follows:

    Important tasks are those whose results lead to the achievement of our personal or professional goals.

    Urgent tasks require your immediate attention. However, they are typically related to the goal of someone else (such as your boss). Nevertheless, we focus on them more because there are negative consequences to not doing them right away.

    At this point, you may want to reflect on three things.

    First, identify which tasks or activities are most important to you. Are they in line with your goal? How far along are you in terms of accomplishing it?

    Second, look back on how you spend your time each day. Do you focus on what is urgent? Were you able to find time for what is important?

    Finally, consider how you can make time for what is important and still be able to do what is urgent. Alternatively, think about whether you can sacrifice what is urgent for what is important.

    One strategy that can help you focus on the important tasks first is to do them at the start of your day. The reason why this is effective is that you would still make time for what is urgent later on in the day. After all, you will always find a way to do what is urgent to avoid the consequence.

    Make sure to write down all your thoughts until you can flesh out a concrete plan out of them.

    The Pareto Principle

    It is easy to prioritize when you are in control of your time and resources. However, things take a more challenging turn when you are faced with many issues that will force you to make quick decisions.

    If ever you find yourself in this situation, then you can take a page out of Italian economist Wilfredo Pareto. According to him, eighty percent of the effects of most events come from twenty percent of the causes. To make his point clear, he explained two examples.

    The first one is that 80 percent of the properties in his homeland are owned by only 20 percent of the population. The second, on which his principle is initially based, is that 20 percent of the pea-pods in his garden held 80 percent of the peas produce.

    To this day, the Pareto Principle is being used by many professionals to gauge almost anything, such as by stating that 80 percent of a corporation’s sales come from only 20 percent of its products.

    Going back to the concept of Prioritization, you can apply the Pareto Principle by applying the following steps:

    1. Identify the main problems.

    Take note of every issue that is holding you back from achieving your goal or task. If you are working as a team, consult each member to get their own insights. You might also need to consult your progress chart.

    1. Determine the main cause of each problem.

    According to the concept of Root Cause Analysis, there are three common root causes behind any problem. These are Physical Causes, Human Causes, and Organizational Causes.

    When something breaks down or fails to operate due to some tangible or observable aspect, then it is due to a Physical Cause. One example is you being unable to finish a three-page report due tomorrow because your laptop computer crashed.

    If a person failed to do something, or did something wrong, then the problem is from a Human Cause. An example would be your co-worker failing to send you an email of the survey results for your report tomorrow.

    In situations where, despite the effectiveness of tools and the efficient skills of the people involved, the process itself caused the problem, then it is considered to be due to an Organizational Cause. One example is the pyramid scheme, in that the products are effective and the salespeople are passionate and trained. Yet, the system itself fails to be sustainable.

    Based on this perspective, it is easy to identify the root cause of some problems. However, if you find it a challenge to do so, then you should ask yourself these questions to help you deduce the issue until you can identify the root cause.

    What happened?

    How did it happen?

    Why did it happen?

    Will it happen again?

    Why or why not?

    1. Rearrange the problems in order of priority.

    After you have identified the root cause for each problem, you should then create another list of the same problems. Only this time, you will be enumerating them based on how important it is for them to be solved. This way, you will instantly know which one to focus on solving first before you move on to the second, third, and so on.

    1. Come up with the solutions.

    Now that you have analyzed and organized all the problems, the final step is to solve each of them. Start with the most important problem to be solved, and then brainstorm on the best steps to take to address it.

    Now that you know how to apply Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle and Pareto’s Principle, you can choose from a variety of time management tools in organizing all this information. A simple chart on a spreadsheet should do the trick, and it can look something like this:

    Eisenhower’s Urgent/Important Principle

    Today’s List of Tasks

    Important Tasks Urgent Tasks

    Task 1 – 8:00 am to 9:30 am Task 1 – 11:00 am to 12:00 am

    Task 2 – 10:00 am to 10:30 am Task 2 – 1:00 pm to 3:00 pm

    Pareto’s Principle

    Ranking Problem Root Cause Solution:

    1 Problem A Root Cause A Solution A

    2 Problem B Root Cause B Solution B

    3 Problem C Root Cause C Solution C

    By using these tools, you will surely be able to get more tasks done throughout your day. Of course, this does not mean that these tools alone will enable you to focus on getting the job done. There will be times when we fail to focus on a task because of unexpected occurrences and distractions. However, you can overcome these challenges by improving your ability to concentrate. The next chapter can provide you with tips and strategies on how to do just that.