PepsiCo Case Study; Pepsi was created by the chemist named Caleb Brad-ham. Keep Reading Case Study of International Marketing Strategy in PepsiCo. He was inspiring to experiment with various products and ingredients to create a suitable summer drink that became highly sought after way back in the summer of 1898. It was this summer inspiration that later evolved into what we now know as Pepsi Cola. You’ll like to L’Oréal International Marketing Strategy explains their Case Study.
The Product inspired to experiment with various products and ingredients to create a suitable summer drink. Case Study of International Marketing Strategy in PepsiCo.
The company was launched officially in the year 1902. The beginning of Pepsi Cola was in the back room of his pharmacy, but recognizing its potential, Caleb soon started bottling the product so that people all over can enjoy it. As the years passed, Caleb started franchising the bottling of the drink to different people in different locations. Soon Pepsi Cola was being sold in 24 states across the United States.
When World War I broke out, the company went bankrupt and Caleb had to sell the trademark to a stockbroker from North Carolina. But he too could not revive the business. It was the candy manufacturer, Charles G. Guth, who bought it from the previous owner and revive it into the global brand it is today. Its marketing plan started even when the company was in the hands of Caleb and grew with the company. It was during World War II that the company adopt the red white and blue emblem to depict patriotic America.
The color code still exists today through the emblem has evolved many times. It was after 65 years after the sale of its first cola that PepsiCo started its diversification into other foods and beverages. Now the company not only sells Pepsi, its main brand, but also other items like Quaker Oats, Aquafina, Tropicana, Mountain Dew and Lays. It also had an alliance with companies like Starbuck’s and Lipton to come out with special coffee and tea.
PepsiCo Marketing, and Promotional Strategy in the Market.
The current marketing strategy adopts by PepsiCo Inc. is definitely one that caters to its global standing. Since Pepsi came out at a time when Coke or Coca-Cola already have a head start in the market, it’s market strategy and the business plan began with differentiation – an attempt to establish its product as one that is unique in taste and quality. This approach was successful to a great extent and Pepsi was able to establish itself in the US markets.
Later the plan shifted to comparative marketing and later to diversification. Pepsi’s promotional campaigns had a lot to do with its success. Pepsi’s market environment always presented it with a challenge in the form of Coke which had already created a niche for itself. In the 1940s to create a niche among the African American, Pepsi created a scholarship program that awarded 17 African American high school seniors full-time scholarships. During the same time, the ad campaigns of Pepsi featured top people from the African American community and they called it “Leader in their field” campaign. This campaign was quite a breakthrough and really made an impact.
It opened up a whole new market segment for the company. In the 1960s, Pepsi’s campaign was aimed at teenagers and young adults – beach bursting of youngsters having fun and drinking Pepsi was quite a common theme and popular too. It showed that Pepsi was the drink for partying and hanging out with friends, something the American youth could easily identify with. The “Pepsi Generation” theme became highly popular and the drink started creating a niche for itself among the young of the country.
At first, it calls “think young” campaign. This later evolved into “come alive” in the year 1965. This is when the term “Pepsi generation” was first introduced to the people. In the 1970s Pepsi came out something called the “Pepsi Challenge”. This campaign was aimed at proving Pepsi as a better-tasting drink than its rival Coke and involve blind tasting of the two products to choose the better one.
Even though this helped improve the market share of PepsiCo, Coke still led the market. Pop icons like Michael Jackson and Lionel Ritchie and youth sensation like Michael J Fox became part of the Pepsi campaigns in the 1980s whereby Pepsi began to beat Coke and come out the winner. They had a huge fan following and when they saw endorsing the brand, the impact was instantaneous. Pepsi also exploited famous movies of the time like Star Wars to improve their brand image and create interest among the people.
However, Pepsi chose to replace the “Pepsi Generation” campaign with “Gotta Have It” at the beginning of the 1990s. This turned out to be an erroneous move and Coke again started to gain market share.
Pepsi Marketing Blunders.
One of the major blunders that Pepsi did in its marketing runs is the literal translations of some of its slogans into other languages. For example, PepsiCo’s slogan “Come Alive with the Pepsi Generation” when translated into Taiwanese meant “Pepsi will bring your ancestors back from the dead” and caused great damage to its image. It was a perfect example of the wrong market message.
Similarly, the goodwill of the company suffered a heavy blow when its bottle cap campaign (number inside the cap and a few winning numbers win fabulous prizes) in Chile ended in the wreckage of the company. This was caused by wrong fax being sent and the wrong number announce on TV. Almost a similar incident repeat in the Philippines as well a few months later when, due to a computer glitch, instead of one winner several winners were announcing for the bottle cap sweepstakes. Instead of learning from a blunder in one country, it was repeating in another, causing further harm to its brand image. A more recent marketing blunder happened in the United States of America itself.
In 2010, Pepsi decided not to spend big bucks for sponsoring the Super Bowl. The Super Bowl is a sporting event in the States that is watching by almost all Americans and hence its wide reach is indisputable. Instead, it decided to do social marketing through its Internet-based “Refresh” campaign. Though the effort was commendable it was a major blunder. Instead of using the Super Bowl to further give the limelight to the Refresh campaign, it completely missed the opportunity paving way for others to make use of the spot.
When Pepsi and the Cola Wars.
The cola wars began somewhere in the mid-1950s. The main players in the war were Pepsi and Coca-Cola. The two companies had been in rivalry ever since Pepsi came out with its first cola. But the rivalry reached its zenith in the 1980s and 1990s. The main point was neither company had a cost advantage. Hence promotion was the main way of competing. In the 80s Pepsi started coming out with campaigns that undermined Coke.
For example, a Pepsi and came out which showed a group of retirement home people dancing to rock ‘n roll when they get the wrong delivery of a Pepsi crate instead of Coca-Cola. It also used celebrity advertising vigorously. This gave Pepsi a lead in the market, though short-lived.
In the 1990s Coca-Cola was beating Pepsi by huge margins again. The war was quite cutthroat with Coca-Cola doing everything possible to outrun Pepsi. This included stealing Pepsi’s bottlers, hoarding of Pepsi bottles and creating ads that hinted at ridiculing the Pepsi brand. In many countries, Coca-Cola was forcing retailers and bottlers to boycott the Pepsi brand. Upon learning about this Pepsi filed several anti-competitive cases out if which they won around 70. Yet, at one stage of the war, Pepsi’s market value fell to less than half of Coca Cola’s market value.
Coca-Cola was and is still leading in when it comes to the market share of its cola brand. The only way Pepsi could fight back was through diversification. It started spreading its wings to include sports beverages. Varied versions of the Pepsi drink and non-carbonated beverages in its portfolio. It started considering itself as a “complete” beverage company. The diversification further happened to include snacks and food items like potato chips and oats. Diversification really helped Pepsi to improve. PepsiCo is falling stands in the market not only in the local markets of America and Europe but also in its international markets where Coke is leading the show.
When Pepsi Goes International and Its Global Marketing Plans.
In the 1940’s itself, PepsiCo started branching out into the international arena. At first, it was into Latin America, the Middle East, and the Philippines. Here too Coke had the early bird advantage. Yet the product soon gained popularity. With the Arab countries boycotting Coke, Pepsi enjoyed a monopoly for many years in the Middle East.
In the 1950s Pepsi went to Europe and this included Russia, with whom there existed a Cold War by the USA. Though there were initial difficulties, getting into Russia was a major breakthrough which the company exploits. The company posted pictures of the then leaders of the United States and Russia sipping the drink.
Its arch-rival, Coca-Cola, was able to enter the Russian markets only after more than 25 years after Pepsi’s entry. In many of the countries that Pepsi venture into comparative advertising was prohibiting and in many countries, it was not an accepted concept. For example, Pepsi tried its “Pepsi challenge” promotional gimmick in Japan. However, the country and its people were not aware of comparative advertising and as such the campaign did more harm than good.
Hence in Japan, they have to break their tradition of running with the global campaign and come up with a campaign that the Japanese would identify with and was more Japanese. The “Pepsiman” was a superhero-like a figure. That was devised by a Japanese person for the Japanese market. The commercial was an instant hit and help improve Pepsi’s share in the Japanese market by as much as 14%. From Japan Pepsi learned a valuable lesson – the same ads will not have the same effect everywhere.
When it comes to cross-national advertising, there is always the inherent risk of alienating the people. With the Indian markets, Pepsi had the first-mover advantage over Coke. PepsiCo had coined its own special slogan for the Indian market too that became quite popular with the crowd. Yet Coke re-entry into India was a great threat to the company. Coke signing on youth icon and Indian star Hrithik Roshan to do their campaign was an even bigger threat.
However, Pepsi reverted to the old ploy of slowing down the competition. They featured the king of Indian movies, Shah Rukh Khan and a Hrithik look alike. This comparative ads were effective and brought Pepsi back into the spotlight. In the USA and European markets, Pepsi still uses promotional campaigns that aim to break the color barriers with stars like Britney Spears, Beyonce and Haley Berry appearing in its ads.
The brand and PepsiCo products are highly popular in these areas. In the international arena, Pepsi has been able to create a niche through its vigorous advertisement and event sponsorship. In fact, more than 45% of the total revenue of the company comes from its market outside the USA. However, the company has experienced many setbacks due to its many blunders have cost it valuable market share.
Case Study of International Marketing Strategy in PepsiCo, Image Credit from ilearnlot.com.
Understanding and Learn, Case Study of A Powerful Partnership of Strategy and Corporate Communication in FedEx.
FedEx is an international company that provides shipping by a series of air and land and logistics and business consulting services, not only for its core businesses with customers but also for the main business objectives, with speed in their communication with the constituencies And provide dependence. In FedEx, employees work in 200 countries for 7 days a week, 24 hours a day. The corporate communication function should act as a broader scenario with speed, high impact, and precision. Also learn, Case Study of A Powerful Partnership of Strategy and Corporate Communication in FedEx.
Given the core businesses of the company, communication challenges can arise in many challenges – anything from crisis management, such as an accident after the accident or computer outage, for the management of e-commerce initiatives, the implementation of a new business model quickly for.
According to Corporate Vice President Bill Margaritas, corporate communications need to add significant value to the business and the company should have a complete alliance with high impact strategic decision makers. But how did they complete it in FedEx? First of all, Margaritis organizes an annual audit with the authorities so that it can know what they are trying to achieve and establish a scorecard for success. These are the company’s new “customer-facing market-market” strategies to improve development and profitability. This structure allows the team to pay full attention to active opportunities, rather than being less vulnerable to operational issues, which are important for management but are distinctly different.
Since the company has created cross-functional groups to solve these strategies, which are at the center of FedEx business. Margaritis Corporate Communications specifies people to have each cross-functional groups dedicated to the “well-known market” strategy. In this way, the perspective of corporate communications on issues such as message about launching a new product, sending news about mergers and acquisitions, pitching the media, and helping in the management of government relations in highly regulated environments, where FedEx operates , Voices are raised with concerns about finance, operations, information systems, and long-term strategic goals.
By dividing corporate communications employees into “go-to-market” groups, customer-facing tasks such as sales, customer care and information technology, Margaritis has gained significant side-effects, they develop a multi-talented group of communication professionals Strategic-level issues of reduction in functional areas such as marketing, finance, sales, technology, and tactics Can help solve problems. Members of his team do not just fill a narrow space, such as writing newsletters for pilots or making speeches for senior executives. Instead, their employees can move through projects to build a comprehensive knowledge of business and can contribute to value-added advocates in those decisions.
The senior management at FedEx realizes that when the company offers new services, offering new services, and making a commitment in the market, the company’s brand is online with several constituencies – opinion leaders, media, Investors, employees, customers as well. For the strategy of working, the company’s culture has to be migrated to a new strategic direction; Employee behavior, motivation, and emotions should be changed accordingly.
Using an example of the company need to make a purchase for a new customer initiative, Margaritas explained the possible partnership between corporate communications and the company’s major strategic decisions:
When companies are rapidly considering changes to their business strategies or business models, then corporate communications groups should play a vital role in the planning and execution process. To change quickly, the company needs to get this news primarily in an attractive, versatile manner in important constituencies, and they have to buy. For example, the company makes a new pledge to the customers, the organization should have a program that connects employees with this new purpose.
A company wants that loyalty of employees to be combined with new value propositions, and translate the new pledge into shareholder value. Employees need to reach new strategies. If not, the company’s brand and reputation may be suffering, corporate communications, one of the things is related to research between employee behavior, and tasks with customer service, and therefore performance interval with active communication programs. Corporate communication has to play a leadership role in a changing environment.
FedEx takes a holistic view of corporate communications in all channels and audiences: by planning and executing a new strategy to measure attempts to add behavior and approach to business and market behavior related to marketplace and market behavior.
Explanation and Learn, What is the role of Cultural Sensitivity in International Trade?
Learn What? Culture plays an important role in the life of people as it is closely associated with them. It is very necessary to understand what a culture requires and what emotions are attached to it. Different countries follow different culture and because of this, some things will be acceptable in some countries whereas the same things will appear to be rude in other countries because of cultural difference. Also Learned, What is the role of Cultural Sensitivity in International Trade?
What is cultural sensitivity?
Meaning: Cultural sensitivity is conscious that cultural differences are present among the people as well as cultural differences, and these differences and similarities can affect attitude, behavior and communication styles. Cultural sensitivity is often used as a synonym for cultural awareness, which refers to the ability to keep itself in someone else’s shoes. Being culturally sensitive should be able to understand why someone else thinks or feels different things from you.
What It Matters for Trade?
Business owners and managers have generally defined ways to do things – patterns of habits, customs and behavior patterns. In many ways it makes sense. Policies and procedures keep the business running in the right order. However, it is also common to face people from different cultural, religious and social backgrounds in the business world. These people can have different ways of doing business and communicating their thoughts. What can be normal or acceptable for a businessman to be unfavorable or unusual for someone else? When communicating with individuals from a different background, being culturally sensitive, you can become aware of their customs and beliefs and respect them.
People who are culturally sensitive will know that the difference between the culture of different people can create differences in their relationship with respect to the way they behave, communicate etc. Hofstede defined culture as “the manner in which the mind is programmed such that it can differentiate the people of one category with those of other.” a culturally sensitive person should try to adopt the culture of another country, their traditions, their way of living, their lifestyle etc.
Nowadays people are getting closer to each other so toleration, dialogue between people of different culture and respect towards their culture and respect for diversity becomes more important. Learning and trying to understand the customs and culture of the foreign country indicates respect for the other country and for any business relationship to be successful respect for each other is very essential.
Many employers feel and have sensed that cross-cultural sensitivity is an important skill and proper care should be taken when dealing in and trading with the international market. In the domestic market, people will know what to do and how to do but to achieve the same motive in the different country with the same concept and then getting success by using same interpersonal professional skills is more important. Proper training should be provided should to the staff about the nature of the place, its scope, and language, values and aesthetics.
When people are traveling from one country to another it is necessary that they do a research about the culture of the country in which they are traveling so that they can go well prepared, which can save them and people around them from an embarrassing situation. Doing business internationally means management of culture of different countries and for maintaining international business relations, people will have to deal with that countries norms, rules, values, and regulations. Overall people need to involve in the culture of different people and try to adapt to their cultural skills and style.
The right type of knowledge for right kind of job is very essential for doing business globally. The ability to negotiate better, understanding the cultural problems and becoming an insider often give a competitive edge in the business. Managers should possess the high level of managerial skills as the relationship between various business networks depends upon the manner in which the manager interact and behave with international clients and how much capacity they are in dealing with crossing cultural boundaries. Cross-cultural training helps in improving success by trying to improve the level of personal cultural awareness and this will help in understanding the culture of other people.
In growing business environment it becomes very essential for the firm to have culturally skilled workers having the ability to work in the international business arena. In the cross-cultural business, sector trust plays a very important role in maintaining a business relationship. Trust can conceptualize as a belief which is influenced by the way the partners behave and how much reliable they are.
The companies should provide training to their staff for each and every situation that they are likely to face as it can also help to develop various strategies that are required for improvement of self-development process. It will enable them to see the world with a different concept through the eyes of their foreign partners. This will help them to learn how to tackle different problems faced by their foreign partners.
In a global economy, culture plays a vital role to make any business transactions successful economically. The firm should be able to cope up with the international differences that arise from different culture and for that, the international culture has to be understood by the managers. The partners must be able to understand each other’s culture and for this, a lot of time and effort is required. By trying to understand the partner’s cultural needs and their culture they will try to solve the cultural differences and in this way, they are likely to behave in a more systematic and sensitive towards the culture. Globally, if cultures are not well understood then the chance of the firm surviving internationally is very low.
The neglected role of Cultural Sensitivity in International Trade:
In this globalized economy, business is growing very fast and the companies are starting to expand in international markets – advanced technology, strong capital hold, cost-benefit, political influence are some of the factors that help in the growth of the business. Increasing competition causes most of the companies to collaborate with the foreign partner. Most of the companies fail in understanding the importance of cross culture resulting in the failure of cross-border partnerships and collaboration.
Most of the companies that plan to expand globally face two problems, first one is to identify the qualities and the attributes of a successful global manager and the second one are finding executives with those attributes. Thus executives who are given foreign responsibilities are usually selected on the basis of them having proper knowledge of their language and should have knowledge of international experience. Culture basically shows the kind of the behavior that is accepted by the society.
Given below are some examples that show negligence of cultural sensitivity in international trade:
In Spain, coca cola had to withdraw its 2 liters of bottles as Spaniards did not have refrigerators having such large compartments for their storage.
Coca-cola, when was launched in China the name, sounded like “Cooke-Koula” which means a thirsty mouth which is full of wax naturally this was not accepted by the people and they decided to ban the product.
When coloring in 800*800 pixels on an India map, to show disputed Kashmir territory Microsoft colored it in eight different shades and this led to fury in India and they banned the map. The difference in green means that Kashmir is shown as Non-Indian.
Pepsodent wanted to sell its toothpaste in south-east Asia by advertising that it “whitens your teeth “but they found out the local there use betel nuts to blacken their teeth.
Gerber, a U.S. firm wanting to sell baby food in Africa, displayed a baby on the packet but soon they realize that the product had flopped as in Africa what the content is in the packet that is displayed on the product.
At African port of stevedores saw the internationally recognized symbol of fragile which means broken wine glass and the staff working there assumed that the box contains broken glass and they threw it inside the sea.
McDonald’s spent the huge amount of money on making advertisement showing Chinese customer kneeling before a McDonald’s staff asking him to accept the expired discount coupon. The ad was called off due to lack of cultural sensitivity on behalf of McDonald’s in China begging is considered to be an embarrassing and shameful act.
Green is the favorite color for many Muslim countries but the same color is considered as a symbol for illness in Malaysia. White is associated with death, sadness and mourn in India, China etc but the same color is brides wedding dress in English country.
According to Hindu culture cow is considered as divine and sacred and the Hindus see the cow as a gift given by God. When McDonald’s entered in India in 1990 it created a big problem as they use beef and the small amount of beef extract in the oil. The Hindus considered this an offense and they protested by refraining from going to McDonald’s and asking them to stop the use of beef in their food products.
The company should basically know what is the culture of the country in which they want the deal as this will help in setting a company in that country more easily and successfully. For an international business to be successful the company should make all efforts to try to understand the culture and create awareness about their culture and in this way try to solve the cultural differences mutually. From the above examples we can see that many companies have faced failure by not trying to understand the culture of other country but trying to learn from their failure as to where they went wrong is more important.
Thus understanding the culture of different countries help to develop and establish the business in that country. By creating general awareness and taking extra efforts to know about the culture and to take the keen interest in learning it will help in solving the cultural differences between the partners. Patience, courtesy and a little bit of curiosity will help in proper communication with each other. Due to lack of cross-cultural sensitivity, there are chances of the business failing to a great extent because what may seem to be right in one country may seem to be not acceptable in another country. So proper research has to be done when a company is planning to start a business in the new country.
IHRM, International Human Resource Management; Many corporations are expanding their markets into regions or other countries they have never touched before. These corporations are experiencing an evolutionary stage: internationalization. It is clear that effective human resource management of an organization is the major competitive advantage and may even be the most important determinant of organizational performance. Thus, to survive in the crucial global economic market, a multinational corporation (MNC) mainly relies on the capability of its international human resource management (IHRM) during the internationalization process. In other words, it is the IHRM’s responsibility to enable the MNCs to be successful globally. Also learn, What are the Financial Intermediaries? Explain IHRM (International Human Resource Management).
Learn, Explain IHRM, International Human Resource Management Definition, Importance, Strategic, Culture, and Dimensions.
What is IHRM? Actually, it is not easy to provide a precise definition of international human resource management (IHRM) because the responsibility of an HR manager in a multinational corporation (MNC) varies from one firm to another. Generally speaking, IHRM is the effective utilization of human resources in a corporation in an international environment. IHRM defines as “the HRM issues and problems arising from the internationalization of business, and the HRM strategies, policies, and practices which firms pursue in response to the internationalization of business”.
The term IHRM has traditionally focused on expatriation. However, IHRM covers a far wider spectrum than expatriation management. Four major activities essentially concerned with IHRM were recruitment and selection, training and development, compensation and repatriation of expatriates.
Definition of IHRM (International Human Resource Management):
Recent definitions concern IHRM with activities of how MNCs manage their geographically decentralized employees to develop their HR resources for competitive advantage, both locally and globally. The role and functions of IHRM, the relationship between subsidiaries and headquarters, and the policies and practices consider in this more strategic approach. IHRM also defines as a collection of policies and practices that a multinational enterprise uses to manage local and non-local employees it has in countries other than their home countries.
Due to the development of globalization, new challenges occur and increase the complexity of managing MNCs. IHRM sees it as a key role to balance the need for coordinating and controlling overseas subsidiaries, and the need to adapt to local environments. Therefore, the definition of IHRM has extended to management localization, international coordination, and the development of global leadership, etc.
To sum up, IHRM should not become a description of fragmented responses to distinctive national problems nor about the ‘copying’ of HRM practices, as many of these practices suit national cultures and institutions. Indeed, issues of concern in IHRM are those of consistency or standardization within diverse social and cultural environments.
Reasons for growing Importance of IHRM (International Human Resource Management):
To explore the field of IHRM, it is important to understand why there is a gradual increase in interest in International Human Resource Management. The Concept of IHRM International Human Resource Management): What is IHRM? Definition of IHRM International Human Resource Management), Reasons for the growing importance of IHRM International Human Resource Management), Strategic International Human Resource Management, IHRM and Culture, Understanding Culture as Layers, Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions.
IHRM is of great importance at present for a number of reasons:
First importance:
Recent years have witnessed the rapid growth of globalization and international competition. Multinational corporations (MNCs) have increased in number and significance, which contribute to the growing importance of the international role of human resource management.
It has been increasingly recognized that the effectiveness of human resource management is one of the major factors to determine the success or failure of the international business. There is also recognition that the quality of management in international operations seems to be more critical than in domestic operations.
A growing shortage of managers with international exposure and experience is becoming an increasing deficiency that affects a company’s corporate efforts to expand abroad. Meanwhile, the emerging markets require managers with distinctive competence and context-specific knowledge of how to do business successfully in countries that are both culturally and economically distant. Thus, a larger role for IHRM activities in multinational corporations assign.
Second importance:
The failure in the international business arena is often costly both in human and financial terms and proves to be more severe than that in domestic business. Companies need to take precautionary measures to train and compensate human resources. This makes a full-fledged IHRM necessary.
HR strategy plays a significant role in the control and implementation of MNCs. It is not difficult to determine which strategy to pursue an MNC in an internationalizing environment. What challenges is how to implement these strategies to be successful. Developing unique organizational cultures is far more important than structural innovations in any global or transnational strategy. To this extent, IHRM strategy becomes the crucial determinant of the implementation and success of the MNC strategy.
The complex nature of HRM problems involving in the global environment underestimates by some companies. Poor management of human resources often results in business failures in international business. Expatriate performance failure or underperformance continues to be problematic for IHRM in many international corporations.
Strategic International Human Resource Management:
Under the global context, understanding how multinational Corporations (MNCs) can operate more effectively becomes more important than ever. This links an MNC with the need of an internationalized strategy which can direct its subsidiaries’ operation not only in the home country but also in different parts of the world.
There are several reasons to develop IHRM strategy:
at any level, HRM is important to strategy implementation;
major strategic components of multinational enterprises have a major influence on international management issues, functions, and policies and practices;
the attainment of the concerns and goals of MNCs can influence by many of these characteristics of IHRM;
the study of IHRM is challenging and important because there are a wide variety of factors making the relationship between MNCs and IHRM complex.
Major strategic:
Strategic IHRM defines as human resource management issues, functions and policies, and practices that result from the strategic activities of multinational enterprises and that impact the international concerns and goals of those enterprises.
Two major strategic components of MNCs that influence Strategic IHRM point out: inter-unit linkages and internal operations. Regarding inter-unit linkages, multinational enterprises are concerned with how to effectively operate their various worldwide operating units. In particular, the key objectives appear to be how these operating units differentiate and integrate, control, and coordinate.
For strategic IHRM, the issues associated with integrating and coordinating an MNC’s units represent a major influence on strategic IHRM issues, policies, and practices. Concerning internal operations, they require the same attention as the linkage of the units, since they all influence MNC effectiveness. Each unit has to operate as effectively as possible relative to the competitive strategy of the MNC and the unit itself.
It has been argued that the success of strategic IHRM in an MNC largely influence by the quality of its human resources and how effectively the corporation’s employees manage.
Three types Strategic Approach:
Three approaches describe how multinational companies manage the human resources and their overseas subsidiaries: ethnocentric, polycentric, and geocentric.
Ethnocentric Approach: This practice usually happens in the early stage of a firm’s internationalization involvement. With this approach, strategic decisions are all made by the headquarters, and the management practices transfer to the subsidiaries. The most important positions fill by parent-country nationals (PCNs). As a result, little autonomy gives to overseas operating units. During this stage, home country expatriates exercise tight control.
Polycentric Approach: When the strategy becomes polycentric, there is a marked decline in the number of PCNs sending abroad; and, their role changes into communication and coordination of strategic objectives. Host-country nationals (HCNs) recruits to manage the operating units in their own country; because local managers know more about the local circumstances and are more familiar with local business ethics. More autonomy gives to local managers to develop their own management practices appropriate for the subsidiary.
Geocentric Approach: This approach relates most closely to the global or transnational strategy. The selection of employees base on competency rather than nationality. The best headquarter and local practices combine by MNCs to come up with a global-implemented HR strategy.
Most MNCs take the IHRM strategy as a guideline and implement it locally. It is, therefore, the HR managers’ responsibility to provide the proper international HR strategy to prepare; and, manage the employees in their home country or an international assignment.
IHRM and Culture:
Different cultures of various countries and MNCs are one of the most important and difficult challenges to the conduct of IHRM. National and organizational cultures differentiate from one country and firm from those of another. Often these differences clash when companies conduct business in the multinational environment. Cultural differences across countries can influence people in their work environment.
Hofstede defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another”. It is important to understand peoples’ different cultural backgrounds to be able to identify the consequences for international management. Culture is a crucial variable in international assignments and should include in international management practices. Knowledge about and competency in working with country and company cultures is the most important issue impacting the success of the international business activity, understanding various values, beliefs, and behaviors of people are essential aspects of success for doing business internationally.
Understanding Culture as Layers:
The multiple layers of meaning of “culture” are one of the complexities that make it so difficult to manage. There are a large number of readily observable characteristics (such as food, art, clothing, greetings, and historical landmarks) that differ obviously from other countries or operations. Sometimes these refer to manifestations of underlying values and assumptions which are much less obvious.
One way to understand this complexity explain by the layers of culture model. The model represents the culture as a series of layers. Moving from outside to inside, each layer represents less and less explicit values and assumptions; while the values and assumptions become more important in determining the attitudes and behaviors. The outermost layer, which calls the surface layer, corresponds to readily visible values and assumptions, like dress, body language, and food.
The middle layer or the hidden culture layer corresponds to religions, values, and philosophies concerning for example what is right and wrong. The invisible layer at the core represents one culture’s universal truths, which is most difficult for foreigners to understand. There exist different cultural dimension among different cultures. These cultural dimensions have been identified and one frequently cited work from a well-known researcher within this cultural dimension field is Geert Hofstede.
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions:
Hofstede has identified five cultural dimensions for which each country could be classified in. These five dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and long-term versus short-term orientation. Power distance indicates the level of inequality in institutions and organizations. A country with large power distance is characterized by formal hierarchies and by subordinates; who have little influence in their own work and where the boss has total authority.
Uncertainty avoidance focuses on the level at which people in a certain country tolerate uncertainty and ambiguity within the society. High uncertainty indicates that the country has a low tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. This will inevitably create a rule-oriented society; which institutes laws, regulations, and controls to diminish the amount of uncertainty.
Many things:
Individualism versus collectivism refers to the degree where people prefer to take care of themselves; and, making their own decisions rather than being bound to groups or families. A highly individualistic society consists of usually impersonal and loose relationships between individuals; while a low individualistic society has more tight relationships between individuals, hence referred to as collectivism by Hofstede. The masculinity versus femininity dimension describes if a culture is bound towards values; that is seen as more similar to women’s or men’s values.
Masculinity is characterized by stereotype adjectives such as assertiveness and competitive, while the femininity is characterized by modesty and sensitivity. A high masculinity ranking indicates the country experiences a high degree of gender differences, usually favoring men rather than women. The fifth and last cultural dimension is long-term versus short-term orientation. A long-term oriented society emphasizes on building a future-oriented perspective in contrast to the short-term oriented society which values the present and past.
Explain IHRM (International Human Resource Management)
Learn and Analysis, Discuss Case Study for The Magic of Ford!
In 1903, in a small wagon shop in Dearborn Michigan, a man by the name of Henry Ford started what is today the Ford Motor Company. It started it in 1896 when Henry Ford built his first car. It was only experimental at the time, but less than ten years later in 1908, he introduced a more updated version to the public. This became known as the Ford Model t. Once people realized what a wonderful novelty this was and how it would greatly facilitate their lives, there was a huge demand for them. In order for the company to be able to satisfy this heavy demand, Ford introduced the world’s first assembly line for cars. It revolutionized the industry. Also learned, Case Study for BMW’s “The Hire” Ad Film Campaign! Discuss Case Study for The Magic of Ford!
By 1923 more than half of America’s vehicles were made by Ford. Today, the Ford Motor companies the number two company in its industry as well as the number two industrial corporation in the world. When the average person thinks of the Ford Company, they think of just Ford. This thinking, however, is incorrect. Ford is divided into four major components, automotive, Ford credit, Visteon, and Hertz. Ford also produces vehicles under the names of Aston Martin, Ford, Jaguar, Lincoln and the Mercury and Volvo brands.
Image: #Ford Company Logo
Recently, Ford profits have increased significantly, for the nine months ending 30/09/06; total revenues increased 9% to 127.48 billion dollars. Net income from continuing operations decreased 10% to $4.32 billion dollars. Results reflect increased vehicle sales offset by higher warranty and costs related to the Firestone recall. Last year’s total sales went up 13% to become 163 billion dollars and profit also rose 10% to become $7.2 billion dollars. As far as Ford Motor Company can remember, this is more than any other car company ever. Ford’s main automotive competitors are General Motors, DaimlerChrysler, Toyota, Honda, Nissan, and Volkswagen.
Their Three Questions maybe very helpful study these discussions:
Q1. Assess the reasons for the growth of the Ford Company.
Q2. Interpolate from the case the clout that the company has in the world economy.
Q3. Assess from the consumer’s perspective the performance of the company’s product.
One of the ways that ford has established its spot as the number two company in the automotive market is its focus on customer satisfaction. Ford Motor Company admits that its greatest asset is the trust and confidence earned from its consumers. When people see a Ford trademark, Ford wants them to associate that with a trust mask of certitude, quality, the reliability of performance and value. Ford strives to connect with their customers as well as reach them. They try to use relationship marketing because it is cheaper to keep an old customer rather than to attract new ones.
William Clay Ford, Chairman of the Board for Ford Motor Company says that satisfying customers goes beyond great products and services. People want to do business with companies who care about them and their environment. He realizes that the best cars are socially and environmentally responsible. Chief Executive Officer, Jacques A. Nasser states, “we will be a leader in corporate citizenship if we are a well-trusted company that people believe contributes positively to a society and uses its resources to create a more sustainable world.”
Jim Vannier, Manager of Ford’s advertising and marketing programs admits “if you listen to your customer, if you provide the right product at the right time, you’ll get the numbers”. The above quotes make it quite obvious that the top executives of the company all concur that customer satisfaction is of the utmost importance in succeeding. If they keep the customer happy, the customer will tell the others they are satisfied, and more and more people will be willing to consume their product.
#Here and Now:
The twentieth century was profoundly affected by the innovations of Henry Ford. The inventions of the automobile gave opportunities to multitudes of people. These opportunities were not just in transportation, but in occupation as well. Today, no matter where a Ford is produced, the consumer knows that they are receiving a high-quality product. The reason for this is that the majority of Ford vehicles parts are designed by Ford engineers, manufactured in Ford plants and assembled in Ford product lines. When you purchase a Ford product, you are truly purchasing Ford quality. Ford is the number two manufacturer of automobiles, second only to the General Motors Corporation.
This case highlights certain strategies of this corporation that propelled it to its current number two spot in the market. There are many aspects of marketing strategies that will be discussed in this case such as, product strategies, promotion strategies, pricing strategies as well as internet marketing and other forms of product distribution. Each one of these strategies plays a key role in the success of the number two motor company in the automotive industry. Many people tend not to realize just how important the marketing of a new product can be.
It plays a huge role in the success or failure of the new product. For example, many people may remember many years ago when Ford came out with a new vehicle called Edsel. The Edsel became known as one of the Ford Motor Company’s lemon. Although the thought of such an odd-looking car does not sound appealing, it is said that the look is not what caused its downfall. Surprising as it may sound, the demise of this vehicle was due to poor marketing strategies. Ford’s biggest mistake in marketing the Edsel was their failure to decide on their target market. They tried to market their product to everyone, and with such a large span of people, this was next to impossible for becoming a success.
#The objective of the Company:
The mission of the Ford Motor Company is very basic. Ford sees their customers as one of the most important things; they know their customer satisfaction also plays a gigantic role in their success. “[their] mission is to improve continually [their] products and services to meet [their] consumer’s needs, allowing [them] to prosper as a business and to provide a reasonable return for [their] stockholders, the owners of the business. Their mission shows their devotion to constantly improve and while improving, accommodate their customer’s needs.
Ford’s five main Principals include,
1) Quality: they put the quality of their products first and foremost. Without a quality product, people have no desire to waste their money or jeopardise their safety.
2) Customer Care: if you don’t take care of the Customer, someone else will.
3) Constant Improvement: if the Ford Motor Company allowed themselves to remain stagnant in their environment, their competition would eventually have a huge advantage over them, because they would have newer and better product lines to offer.
4) Employee Involvement: Ford wants each and every employee to be involved in their company. The happier the employee, the better they work. It is all about feeling that they are a part of the Ford team. They also want their employee to think like a consumer, they can cater more to the needs of their actual consumers because they will know what the consumers want.
5) They consider dealers and suppliers to be their partners: without the dealers and suppliers Ford would not be able to manufacture the things they need alone and therefore would not be able to produce as many vehicles as there would be a demand for or even be able to distribute them all to people.
#The Arena:
Ford has many competitors. Since Ford is ranked as the number two companies, its main competitor is quite obviously the number one company, General Motors Corporation. General Motors, also an American Company holds 29.4% of the automotive market share while following close behind them the Ford Motor Corporation holds 25.1% of the top 5 best selling cars in 1999, Ford Taurus appears as number three and Ford Escort appears as number five in a recent survey. The automotive industry has fierce rivalry among its competitors. In the past years, the following mergers have occurred- Daimler Benz acquired Chrysler and Ford bought Volvo in order to be able to properly compete with General Motors, this way Ford is not allowing General Motors to become too much larger than they already are. If General Motors develops a new feature or the automobile, Ford must be right behind them with their most innovative invention, and vice-versa.
Ford has 25.1% of the market share presently. This is quite impressive considering that the number one automotive company, General Motors, also an American company has 29.4%. This means that the top two companies hold more than 50% of the market share. This is quite extraordinary. The total market value of the Ford Motor Company is approximately $56 Billion Dollars and their profits are well over $7 Billion. In 2005 Ford sales raised up to $163 billion dollars. This was a thirteen-percent increase from the previous year.
#The Catch:
A car, if not properly assembled, maintained, and operated can become a deadly weapon. The United States government regulates many aspects of the automotive industry. Among these regulations are seatbelts, airbags, and shatterproof windshields. The government has also made inspection and maintenance programs more expanded, in order to include more areas and allow for more stringent tests. In 1990 the government amended the Clean Air Act. The main focus of the act was to cut down on all the urban smog, carbon monoxide and particular emissions from Diesel engines and to help decrease acid rain and toxins that motor vehicles contribute to.
The amended act demands that polluted cities must sell improved gasoline that helps to reduce ozone-forming Hydrocarbons and Carbon Monoxide. Once inside an automobile, the operator of the vehicle is responsible for obeying many regulations as well. It has become extremely important, for instance, to wear your seat belt. Primary enforcement seat belt laws allow police to stop and ticket a driver for not wearing a seatbelt, just like any other traffic violation. Seventeen states and the District of Columbia have enacted these laws.
The remaining 32 states have secondary laws that allow law enforcement to ticket a driver for not belting up only after the person has been stopped, or ticketed, for another violation, and one state does not have any seat belt law. Obviously, safety belt laws work, and the public overwhelmingly supports them. Three out of four Americans support safety belt laws, according to a recent public opinion survey. Stronger safety belt and child passenger safety laws, and stepped up enforcement of those laws, are the most effective steps we can take to save lives.
#Corporate Responsibility Towards Society:
Ford Motor Company sponsors many programs to better the community and their safety. For example in the Detroit area, ford organized a weekend clinic in which the automotive safety office educated fifty-five people and their children on the proper use and installation of child safety seats. They demonstrated this in the consumer’s actual vehicles. Ford is also committed to environmental cleanliness. They sponsor programs to educate our children on environmental cleanliness and responsibility.
They also sponsor company-wide recycling, cleaner operating vehicles, recyclable components, cleaner manufacturing, and employee involvement in environmental activities. Ford does not do these things because they have to, they do it because it is the right thing to do. The Ford Motor Company not only is social action but culturally as well. Ford provides financial support at many historically black colleges such as Tuskegee University in Alabama, this is where the famous black inventor George Washington Carver performed many of his experiments. Ford Motor Company, as of 1999 has 23.2 percent of its employees as minorities. This is up 1% from 1998. Diversity makes the business world go round and no one knows this better than the Ford Motor Company.
#Innovation or Death:
The Ford Motor Company values their product Analysts. [Their analysts develop product cycle plans that help forecasters determine [their] approach to different markets. The people who start the product cycle are called the research, Design Packaging and Financial Analysts. The researchers find out what type of things that consumers would like their vehicles to be occupied with. The Design packages are the people who decide the most appealing way to package the final product. The financial analysts put the numbers together to figure out exactly how much money all if the above will cost. Next, designers and engineers along with testers actually create the vehicles. They create vehicles according to the specifications of the Research, Design Packaging and Financial Analysts. This way they are producing what the market wants.
The research and Advanced technology Teams then decide which technologies should be used in the new products. Ford is constantly trying to improve their product development and expand their innovations. Currently, Ford is working on a new line of intelligent vehicles. These vehicles will enable the driver, through voice activation, to connect to the internet. The voice activation will also be implemented into the navigation system, heating and air-conditioning, cell phones, audio systems, and other electronic things inside the automobile. Ford is adapting to each change in order to be able to bring their customers the most innovative and convenient products possible. As soon as the new technology becomes available, Ford Motor Company is among the first few to try to implement it into their vehicles.
#Product Targeting:
Ford motor company has different types of cars, which are each targeted towards many different markets of people. As the company learned the hard way with the Edsel, the importance of a target market is extremely high. Loss of a target marketing focus usually means the loss in sales. Ford has a different car targeted towards different age groups, personalities, genders and economic standing and more. The Ford Mustang, for example, is targeted mainly at the middle-aged. This is exhibited by its slogan of it is what it was and more. This implies that the target consumer would be old enough to remember what the Mustang was when it first came out in the 1960’s.
Another example is ford trucks. Their slogan is “Built Ford Tough”. The toughness implies a target towards rugged men. Because of the fact that the word “tough” is used, it seems that it would be very unlikely that the ford motor company would be using that to attract women. When the word tough is thought of, women are generally not the first thing that comes to mind. The third and final example is the Ford Taurus. Its slogan is “ford makes it smart to buy American.” The target market for a Ford Taurus is a family. The Taurus station wagon, for instance, is a great family car with tons of room, yet it handles like a sports car. The above three examples are only a small sampling of what ford offers. Ford motor company manufactures sedans, SUVs, trucks, luxury cars and more. If you are looking for it, the odds are that ford will satisfy you.
#Product Mix:
The Ford Motor Company has such a wide selection of vehicles in order to satisfy every different type of potential consumer. They offer small cars, sports car, midsize cars, luxury cars, vehicles, convertibles, wagons, minivans, vans, trucks, commercial trucks, and even environmentally efficient cars. Each of Ford’s different types of vehicles have many different options that came along with them the 2001 Explorer for example, runs to roughly $25,715 dollars, without any extras. However, should the consumer decide that he or she would like to add perks, there would be many choices. For instance, in the convenience group of options, you can add anything from a cargo cover to speed control.
In the XLS sports group anything from chrome steel wheels to wheel moldings. There is even a trailer tow prep package, which includes a wiring harness and an H.D. Flasher for only $355 dollars extra. After that the consumer has the option to add even more options. They can customize the engine, transmission, drive, rear axle, wheel type, tire type, seat equipment and much more. The company also offers the Explorer in 10 different colours for the exterior. With the plethora of the above options, how could anyone not find what they are looking for? Each one of the 24 cars manufactured under the Ford name has many options as the Explorer, if not more.
#Services Offered:
When you own a Ford vehicle, you can register for Owner’s Services. This includes reminders of when your vehicle needs to service, tips for vehicle safety, maintenance information, does it yourself pointers and online manuals. It also includes warranty guides, offers, and discounts exclusive to people registered for the service, online shopping, private communications, and links to Ford Company Specialists. Ford, Lincoln, and Mercury dealerships specialize in the servicing of their own vehicles. The dealership is a wonderful place to go to have your breaks served, shocks replaced and batteries as well.
The company also offers Extended Service Plans(ESP). With the Extended Warranty Plan and the factory unlimited Warranty; you are able to choose a plan that suits your needs. The way the plan works is, you pay a small deductible anywhere from $0-$100. The Ford ESP cost protects the consumer from increasing prices in labor and increased prices in parts. Other services that are offered by Ford Motor Company area Customer Assistance Centres, Collision Assistance, Roadside Assistance, Technical Service Information and their website. The website includes links to safety tips and Frequently Asked Questions.
#Promotional Strategies:
The current promotions that are offered by the Ford Motor Company are Radiator Service, Brake service, and Batteries. All of the above promotions are wonderful for the upcoming winter months. The radiator service includes, top of all fluids and a free 12pt all weather check of hoses, clamps, belt and more. This promotion and all of the above promotions appeal to people who are thinking ahead to cold winter months. This winter in New York has been predicted to be one of the worst we have seen in a while. A radiator is not actually something you would want to break down in the middle of a snowstorm.
The battery promotion is offering a Motorcraft tested, though series battery. They are also offering a Silver Series Battery for only$20 dollars more. Each promotion for a new battery comes with over an 83-month warranty. It is a good idea to replace your battery before a new winter season. When it is freezing outside, trying to find a Good Samaritan who is willing to give you a jump is a rarity. The Brake Promotion comes with the Motorcraft brake service. This promotion includes replacement of brake pads or shoes, front or rear turn rotators and drums. This promotion will also check the brake’s hydraulic system and repair, if necessary. This once again appeals to the person(s) who is preparing for the harsh winter to come. Being that, a bad winter generally means a lot of snow and ice. With weather conditions like that, who needs to worry about brake failure?
#Pricing strategies:
One of ford’ pricing strategies is the fact that they try to help the consumer finance a Ford vehicle. Ford offers its consumer many plans to choose from in order to find the financing option that best fits their needs. The following are only a few of Ford’s financing options. The first is the Red Carpet Lease: the consumer is offered flexibility for payment; there are advance payment plans and Additional payment programs, depending on which one is best for you.
The second financing plan is mobility financing: mobility financing offers flexible and convenient financing terms for their physically challenged consumers who need adaptive equipment in their vehicles. The finance rate is based on your credit and the terms of the transaction. Ford credit has earned a top ranking place in the world of automotive finance by providing loans and leases that are convenient and affordable. They also specialize in services such as commercial lending and municipal financing.
The municipal financing is so convenient that it can be calculated on the internet. All that needs to be done in order to do this is, select a vehicle, model, make, and product line. The online calculator will give the consumer an estimated lease and retail payment. Ford financing company provides a verity of products and services to both, the dealers and the consumers. Ford credit also has a commercial lending operation, which caters to light truck fleets and heavy trucks. Ford wants to make it as easy as possible for the consumer to be able to drive a ford. There are so many different financing options that are offered, that finding a plan that is right for you has become easier than ever. If buying a new vehicle is not financially possible, then ford also offers a whole line of pre-owned vehicles, which are backed by Ford Motor Company with a 100 point inspection.
#Distribution internet marketing:
Ford’s newest web site for ford division cars and trucks is www.fordvehicles.com. the new website allows the prospective customer to compare ford vehicles to other cars made by other manufacturers. They are the first company to give consumers the option of product comparison. The section of product comparison on the website comes complete with photographs, feature description, safety options, competitive pricing, financing and warranty information. Ford division internet coordinator, Trisha Habucke states, “With our new design we incorporated new technologies that deliver more visually exciting content.” The website is so user-friendly that consumers can just go right from one ford vehicle to the next without any trouble. Ford is committed to bringing their customers total brand experience.
For example, Ford knows that people with certain types of personalities are attracted to certain types of cars. Explorer drivers, for example, are rugged, the “No Boundaries-ford outfitters” slogan appeals to them. When ford began their internet market, they did the most extensive research ever conducted by a car company. Their advertising agency, J.Walter Thomson found that 210 test participants concurred that the Ford website deserved a high rating for its complete content. Ford attributes a fair amount of the success to the internet. The internet is a way reach millions of people. The company realizes that is has been a powerful tool is the internet. Erin Hughes, who is a ford employee since 1999, admits that her greatest tool is the internet. Erin’s Regional Manager realized that if they had one person whose sole job was to be dedicated to the internet, the company would prosper.
Erin later became the first internet customer satisfaction coordinator. In addition, Hughes started the first internet club for Ford dealers. Since the position of internet coordinator so now more common at ford motor companies, once per month all of the internets coordinators get together to share their most recent e-commerce news and best practices. Hughes says “my job is to provide our dealers with the resources and technology needed to help them sell more vehicles on Main Street and E-street”.
Advertising also plays a large role in the distribution of ford motor company’s products. Ford advertises on television quite often and also on the radio. Previous slogans that ford had etched in everyone’s minds include things like “Have you Driven a Ford Lately?” with a catchy little tune along with it. Ford also has their slogans and products photographs on major highway billboards across the county as well as scoreboards at sporting events such as during commercial breaks where the broadcaster will say something along the lines of sponsored by Ford Motor Company.
The Ford motor company has come a very long way since Henry Ford first established it. They went from a little wagon shop to the second leader in automotive sales. They have been around for almost a century. Ford has elaborative marketing strategies as well as distribution strategies. Their website was extremely easy and fun to use. Ford is also a very well rounded company in that they are very environmentally concerned. It is nice to see that people realized, if we don’t save our planet now there will be nothing left for future generations. With Ford’s experience and high understanding of, and ambition for the satisfaction of the customer, can they someday be the number one automobile company, beating out the General Motor Corporation?
International Advertising essay, generally speaking, is the promotion of goods, services, companies, and ideas, usually in more than one country performed by an identified sponsor. Marketers see advertising as part of an overall promotional strategy. Other components of the promotional mix include publicity, public relations, personal selling, and sales promotion. Advertising is a cogent communication attempt to change or reinforce ones’ prior attitude that is predictive of future behavior. Also learn, What is Major, Key, Dimensions of Organizational Culture? Business Promotion of International Advertising!
Learn, Understand about International Advertising, Meaning, and Definition.
It can view as a communication process that takes place in multiple cultures that differ in terms of values, communication styles, and consumption patterns. It is also a business activity involving advertisers and advertising agencies that create ads and buy media in different countries. The sum total of these activities constitutes a worldwide industry that is growing in importance. International advertising is also a major force that both reflects social values and propagates certain values worldwide.
Global advertising or international advertising consists of collecting, processing, analyzing, and interpreting information.
There are two main purposes of international advertising research:
To assist business executives to make profitable international advertising decisions for their specific products and services, and.
To contribute to the general knowledge of international advertising that is potentially useful to a variety of business executives, educators, government policymakers, advertising self-regulatory organizations, and others interested in understanding the process and effects of international advertising.
More Information!
International advertising involves recognizing that people all over the world have different needs. Companies like Gillette, Coca-Cola, BIC, and Cadbury Schweppes have brands that are recognizing across the globe. While many of the products that these businesses sell are targeted at a global audience using a consistent marketing mix, it is also necessary to understand the regional differences, hence it is important to understand the importance of international marketing.
Organizations must accept that differences in values, customs, languages, and currencies will mean that some products will only suit certain countries and that as well as there being global markets e.g. for BIC and Gillette razors, and for Coca-Cola drinks. There are important regional differences for example advertising in China and India needs to focus on local languages. Just as the marketing environment has to assess at home, the overseas potential of markets has to carefully scrutinize. Finding relevant information takes longer because of the unfamiliarity of some locations. The potential market size, degree, and type of competition, price, promotional differences, product differences as well as barriers to trade have to analyze in order to advertise our product effectively in different countries.
Why Do This?
Advertising is a paid message used to promote a product, service, or idea to a specific audience. International advertising refers to advertising which is carried out in multiple countries around the world. Effective advertising requires specialized cultural knowledge that considers differences between target audiences in different countries. International advertising is considering not only a communication process but a business activity, an industry, and a reflection of society as a whole.
The primary goal of advertising is to effectively communicate with the target audience. The communication process involves multiple aspects that are affecting by media, culture, literacy, and language. For example, a multinational company that wishes to place newspaper ads will find that. Their ads will most likely be unsuccessful in countries that have significantly low literacy rates. Additionally, cultural norms and values differ among countries. For example, a television commercial for birth control does not cause concern in many Western countries. While the same ad televised in a conservative Muslim country, such as Saudi Arabia, maybe very controversial.
How, Where, and Which types?
International advertising can also consider a business practice by which an advertising firm attempts to influence audiences in other countries about itself, and its products and services. Advertising agencies decide whether to create global or regional campaigns that are capable of building a global image of a product or service. Agencies create advertisements and place them in the appropriate media outlets throughout the world.
The worldwide industry of international advertising consists of a large network of advertising agencies. The network is made up of small and medium-sized agencies located within one country and large agencies. That have multiple offices in multiple countries throughout the world. This industry network is responsible for communication via the business activity of advertising.
Finally, international advertising reflects multiple facets of society, including values, morals, lifestyles, and gender roles. The image of a product or service created by advertising plays a part in promoting specific facets of society. Criticism of global campaigns claims that these images are promoting Western cultures and values. International advertising may act as a force that promotes these cultures and values with many products becoming objects of desire for others in the world. Additionally, communication through a regional or global campaign can also promote integration and diversity by establishing common bonds and creating universal symbols. That is able to connect people from different areas of the world.
What is the Advantages and Disadvantages of Glocalization in International Business?
Globalization pulls the countries out, from their detachment into the competitive world. A journey towards new collaborations and unity, it has changed the world into a global village. Both distance and isolation have been terrifically reduced. You have to Learn, the Advantages and Disadvantages of Glocalization in International Business, but learn first, What is Glocalization?
Globalization integrates trade, technology, investments, and the mobile factors of production like labor and capital. All types of goods ranging from Coca-Cola, Sprite, Louis Philippe shirts, Marie Claire bags, Police sunglasses, to Adidas and Nike shoes are all available in every market globally, all credit to globalization.
Globalization has been quite a debatable subject. While some are of the opinion that it has a lot of ill-effects upon the society, there exist others who feel exactly the opposite. Some opine that it has made life extremely easier and comfortable. It has however affected the consumers and businesses differently. For a better picture, let us take a look at some of the advantages and disadvantages of globalization.
Advantages of Globalization
Employment
Considered as one of the most crucial advantages, globalization has led to the generation of numerous employment opportunities. Companies are moving towards the developing countries to acquire labor force. This obviously caters to employment and income generation to the people in the host country. Also, the migration of people, which has become easier has led to better jobs opportunities.
Education
A very critical advantage that has aided the population is the spread of education. With numerous educational institutions around the globe, one can move out from the home country for better opportunities elsewhere. Thus, integrating with different cultures, meeting and learning from various people through the medium of education is all due to globalization. Developing countries or labor-intensive countries have benefited the most.
Product Quality
The onset of international trade has given rise to intense competition in the markets. No longer does one find the limited number of commodities available. A particular commodity may fetch hundreds of options with different prices. The product quality has been enhanced so as to retain the customers. Today the customers may compromise with the price range but not with the quality of the product. Low or poor quality can adversely affect consumer satisfaction.
Cheaper Prices
Globalization has brought in fierce competition in the markets. Since there are varied products to select from, the producer can sustain only when the product is competitively priced. There is every possibility that a customer may switch over to another producer if the product is priced exorbitantly. ‘Customer is the King’, and hence can dictate the terms to a very large extent. Therefore, affordable pricing has benefited the consumer in a great way.
Free Movement of Capital
Capital, the backbone of every economy, is of prime importance for the proper functioning of the economy. Today, transferring money through banks is possible just by the click of a button, all due to the electronic transfer that has made life very comfortable. Many huge firms are investing in the developing countries by setting up industrial units outside their home country. This leads to Foreign Direct Investment, which helps in promoting economic growth in the host country.
Communication
Information technology has played a vital role in bringing the countries closer in terms of communication. Every single information is easily accessible from almost every corner of the world. Circulation of information is no longer a tedious task and can happen in seconds. The Internet has significantly affected the global economy, thereby providing direct access to information and products.
Transportation
Considered as the wheel of every business organization, connectivity to various parts of the world is no more a serious problem. Today with various modes of transportation available, one can conveniently deliver the products to a customer located in any part of the world. Besides, other infrastructural facilities like, distribution, supply chain, and logistics have become extremely efficient and fast.
International Trade
Purchase and sale of commodities are not the only two transactions involved in international trade. Today, international trade has broadened its horizon with the help of business process outsourcing. Sometimes in order to concentrate on a particular segment of the business, it is a practice to outsource certain services. Some countries practice free trade with minimal restrictions on EXIM (export-import) policies. This has proved beneficial to businesses.
GDP Increase
Gross Domestic Product, commonly known as GDP, is the money value of the final goods and services produced within the domestic territory of the country during an accounting year. As the market has widened, the scope and demand for a product have increased. Producers familiarize their products and services according to the requirements of various economies thereby tapping the untapped markets. Thus, the final outcome in terms of financial gain enhances the GDP of the country. If statistics are any indication, the GDP of the developing countries has increased twice as much as before.
Disadvantages of Globalization
Health Issues
Globalization has given rise to more health risks and presents new threats and challenges for epidemics. A very customary example is the dawn of HIV/AIDS. Having its origin in the wilderness of Africa, the virus has spread like wildfire throughout the globe in no time. Food items are also transported to various countries, and this is a matter of concern, especially in case of perishable items. The safety regulations and the standards of food preparation are different in different countries, which may pose a great risk to potential health hazards.
Loss of Culture
Conventionally, people of a particular country follow its culture and traditions from time immemorial. With a large number of people moving into and out of a country, the culture takes a backseat. People may adapt to the culture of the resident country. They tend to follow the foreign culture more, forgetting their own roots. This can give rise to cultural conflicts.
Uneven Wealth Distribution
It is said that the rich are getting richer while the poor are getting poorer. In the real sense, globalization has not been able to reduce poverty. Instead, it has led to the accumulation of wealth and power in the hands of a few developed economies. Therefore the gap between the elite and the underprivileged seems to be a never-ending road, eventually leading to inequality.
Environment Degradation
The industrial revolution has changed the outlook of the economy. Industries are using natural resources by means of mining, drilling, etc. which puts a burden on the environment. Natural resources are depleting and are on the verge of becoming extinct. Deforestation is practiced owing to the non-availability of land, thereby drastically reducing the forest cover. This, in turn, creates an imbalance in the environment leading to climate change and occurrence of natural calamities.
Disparity
Though globalization has opened new avenues like wider markets and employment, there still exists a disparity in the development of the economies. Structural unemployment owes to the disparity created. Developed countries are moving their factories to foreign countries where labor is cheaply available. The host country generates fewer revenues, and a major share of the profits fall into the hands of the foreign company. They make humongous profits thereby creating a huge income gap between the developed and the developing countries.
Cut-throat Competition
Opening the doors of international trade has given birth to intense competition. This has affected the local markets dramatically. In recent times the standard of living has improved. People are therefore ready to shell out extra money for a product that may be available at a lower price. This is because of the modern marketing techniques like advertising and branding. The local players thereby suffer huge losses as they lack the potential to advertise or export their products on a large scale. Therefore the domestic markets shrink.
Conflicts
Every economy wants to be at the top spot and be the leader. The fast-paced economies, that is the developed countries are vying to be the supreme power. It has given rise to terrorism and other forms of violence. Such acts not only cause loss of human life but also huge economic losses.
Monopoly
Monopoly is a situation wherein only one seller has a say in a particular product or products. It is possible that when a product is a leader in its field, the company may begin to exploit the consumers. As there exist no close competitors, the leader takes full advantage of the sale of its product, which may later lead to illegal and unethical practices being followed. Monopoly is disastrous as it widens the gap between the developed and developing countries.
In the current scenario, the key to international success is global marketing. Global marketing is the competency of an economy to market its product in almost every country. It is of utmost importance if the product has to make a mark and sustain globally. A car manufacturer in one country will manufacture its product in a different way than a car manufacturer in another country. But if both the manufacturers want to sell their car in a third country then it must have a global appeal. Global marketing has made known to the customer the existence and benefits of a product in the market giving the product an identity. At the same time, it has failed to keep in mind the wants and needs of every consumer, which are unlimited and several.
Simply Advantages and Disadvantages of Glocalization
First of all, glocalization makes sense when a firm faces high pressure for local responsiveness and where there are significant opportunities for leveraging valuable skills within a multinational’s global network of operations. Through glocalization, international products are adapted to the local taste of the population and thereby local communities are introduced to different aspects of foreign cultures. This helps multinational companies to grow and gain the trust of the people of particular regions.
So, glocalization helps in connecting with the consumers of that region on an emotional level and also leverage its global position. This is the most important aspect that leads to the success of the company. Another positive aspect of glocalization is that multinational companies bring in foreign revenue and offer employment opportunities for locals. Disadvantages of this strategy can be that companies are unable to realize location economies or failure to transfer core competencies to foreign markets. Another disadvantage is that it is really difficult to implement a glocal strategy due to organizational problems. This means that glocalization doesn’t always benefit multinational companies because individuals and groups in each region or country can choose to accept or reject the products offerings or the company’s presence.
Reference
1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Glocalization – //www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-globalization.html 2. Simply Advantages and Disadvantages of Glocalization – //www.mbaknol.com/international-business/glocalization-definition-advantages-and-disadvantages/ 3. Photo Credit URL – //images.fastcompany.net/image/upload/w_1280,f_auto,q_auto,fl_lossy/fc/3014641-poster-p-4-reasons-handshakes-go-horribly-wrong.jpg
What is Difference between International and Comparative Human Resource Management? Meaning and Definition!
International Human Resource Management (Human Resource Management)
Due to increased globalization and easy mobility and communications between countries, companies operate at international level. The major task for organizations which operate across international boundaries is to manage. The dissimilar stresses of the drive for integration and differentiation. In the broader sense, International human resource management process has same activities as in Domestic HRM such as planning and staffing. However, domestic HRM is operated in one nation And IHRM activities are involving in different countries. International Human Resource Management is a branch of management studies that examine. The design and effects of organizational human resource practices in cross-cultural contexts.
It occupies an exciting position in the interstices of international business. Human resource management and organizational behavior, scholarships. The theoretical study explains that International HRM is the interplay between three dimensions: HR activities, the types of people being employed in the organization and the different countries that an organization is operating in (Dowling, 1999). Complexities caused by these last two variables are what differentiates international HRM from domestic HRM, as the HR activities themselves are relatively similar.
Comparative Human Resource Management (Human Resource Management)
The meaning and impact of comparative human resource management. Many scholars of HRM have to focus on a narrow definition of the topic that fits the liberal market agenda widespread in some countries but fails to capture the reality of any country – a problem brought into stark relief by comparative studies of HRM. On the basis of that analysis, it will be argued that multiple stakeholder perspectives focused on the long-term benefits to organizations. Employees and the wider community is a more powerful analytic tool. New Roles of Human Resource Management in Business Development.
As an increasing number of organizations seek to operate in foreign markets. It is vital that management practitioners develop a better understanding of, and sensitivity to, the impact of different national settings on the management task. In the field of cross-cultural management/organization, scholars have sought to assist practitioners in achieving. This by conducting research that has generally guiding by two key questions: (1) what is general and universal in the management of organizations, and (2) what is peculiar or specific to one nation or culture?
Difference between international and comparative HRM
International Human Resource Management has defined as HRM issues, functions. Policies and practices that result from the strategic activities of MNEs. International Human Resource Management deals principally with issues and problems associated with the globalization of capitalism. It involves the same elements as domestic HRM but is more complex to manage. In terms of the diversity of national contexts and types of workers. The emphasis is on the MNCs’ ability to attract, develop and deploy talented employees in a multinational setting and to get them to work effectively despite differences in culture, language, and locations. International HRM tends to mitigate the impact of national culture and national employment practice against corporate culture and practices.
Comparative Human Resource Management, on the other hand, is a systematic method of investigation. That seeks to explain the patterns and variations encountered in cross-national HRM rather than simply describe HRM institutions and practices in different societies. Different national business systems arise from differences in specific historical, cultural and institutional heritage in certain countries. Comparative differences occur due to decisive historical events such as the process of industrialization or due to the legacy of pre-modern forms of social organization. Hofstede adopted the ‘culturalist’ perspective where he argued that national business styles emerge due to ingrained cultural attitudes and mental schemas. He described culture under five dimensions which are power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation.
Human Resource Management policies and practices are becoming universal and that country-of-origin effects are no longer relevant. The pressure to build standardize operations internationally is strongest in sectors. Where competition is highly internationalizing, and where firms compete on the basis of a similar product or service across countries. Such as in cars and fast foods. They have put forward several reasons to explain this trend.
Firstly, all MNCs operate in one global market and therefore have to respond to the same environmental pressures such as globalization and technology. The growth in international trade and the move towards an internationally-integrated financial system.
Secondly, the widespread practice of benchmarking ‘best practice’ in terms of cost. Quality and productivity may also have contributed to the convergence of international HRM models for e.g. Japanese style ‘lean-production’ system in the 1980s and 1990s. Moreover, these pressures towards convergence stem in part from the influence of MNCs themselves through. Their ability to transfer practices across borders and erode country-of-origin effects.
Finally, the formation and development of like-minded international cadres mostly from American or European business schools. May have contributed to homogenize international HRM policies and practices.
Since the early 1990s, the international HRM literature has dominated by models and typologies aim at identifying how international HR fits with organizational strategy. The main issue for all multinational companies is the need to trade-off the advantages global efficiency namely. The coordination of its operations to achieve economies of scale and scope as opposing to the need to differentiate its products and services to meet the local demands. They also identify a third pressure, namely worldwide innovation and learning. Whereby firms are encouraging to support innovation and learning across. Their network of subsidiaries rather than simply relying on research and development at the headquarters. MNEs then follow the appropriate HRM policies and practices according to the structure of the organization. The competitive strategy is chosen or stage of corporate evolution reach.
Taylor’s model of strategic international HRM has described below
Exporting: This is essentially a model where the HQ management takes home country management approach and try to implement them in their foreign subsidiaries in order to achieve economies of scale. In this model, there is a system of hierarchy and a centralized control. This is especially useful in instances of an uncertain political environment and high risks demanding greater control from corporate parents. Given this pattern of centralization, there is a considerable amount of ‘forward policy transfer’ and less ‘reverse transfer. From subsidiaries to the HQ, i.e. they rely mainly on the technical know-how of the parent company. Strategic Role of e-HR (Electronic Human Resource).
Global firms offer products or services that are standardizing to enable production to carry in a cost-efficient way. Their subsidiaries are not subject to rigid control except over the quality and the presentation of the product or service. This structure is normally associate with the American firms with their formalize. Bureaucratic control and a dominant finance system to internalize risks. What is Need? The Do and Don’t in Diversity Management.
Adaptive: Differences in the host environment demands and conditions mean that overseas subsidiaries have to operate independently. This is common where departing from established practices in host environments is unlawful. For example, in some Germany, there is a legal obligation to negotiate with employee representatives concerning major organizational changes. In other cases, transferring practices may be legal but would go against traditional practices at the risk of losing goodwill from staff. Firms may decide to forgo HQ control if there is the possibility to exploit most efficiently the local labor markets. For example, MNCs which origin from high-cost highly regulates economies such as Germany may well choose not to transfer important elements of their HR systems. Such as collective bargaining or apprenticeship if they move to lower wage, lightly regulated economies such as China.
Integrative: It is also argued that the more management processes and activities can integrate across geographical boundaries. The easier it is to share resources and knowledge. They can identify and best use the skill and management talent. That exists across the MNC network allowing for both global integration and local differentiation.
As mentioned previously, international HRM processes consist of the same activities as domestic HRM but applied in an international context. These include an accurate human resource planning to ensure that the MNCs have the right people at the right place around the world. Good staffing policies that capitalize on the worldwide expertise of expatriates and locals. Performance appraisals that fit with the competitive strategies of the HQ. Adequate training and development to ensure that expatriates. Do not suffer from ‘culture shock‘ and compensation policies that are strategically and culturally relevant. The focus in international HRM strategy is how MNEs coordinate. Their geographically dispersed operations strengthening the organizational culture. Promoting commitment and encouraging willingness in employees to act in the interests of the firm.
Reference
1. International Human Resource Management – https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/Management/notes/international-human-resource-management.html
2. Comparative HRM – https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110221002250AApRjIq
3. Difference between International and Comparative HRM – https://www.ukessays.com/essays/business/difference-between-international-and-comparative-hrm.php
International Advertising, generally speaking, is the promotion of goods, services, companies, and ideas, usually in more than one country performed by an identified sponsor. This article explains about Concept of International Advertising deeply discussion. Marketers see advertising as part of an overall promotional strategy. Other components of the promotional mix include publicity, public relations, personal selling, and sales promotion.
Study and Learn, the Concept of International Advertising.
Advertising is a cogent communication attempt to change or reinforce ones’ prior attitude that is predictive of future behavior. Also Learn, What is International Advertising? Meaning and Definition, the Concept of International Advertising!
It can view as a communication process that takes place in multiple cultures that differ in terms of values, communication styles, and consumption patterns. It is also a business activity involving advertisers and advertising agencies that create ads and buy media in different countries. The total of these activities constitutes a worldwide industry that is growing in importance. International advertising is also a major force that both reflects social values and propagates certain values worldwide.
Deeply Explain:
International advertising is becoming increasingly complex; more and more local and international companies are competing for consumers who are increasingly sophisticated and demanding. International advertising defines as the non-personal communication by an identified sponsor across international borders, using broadcast, print, and or interactive media.
It requires dissemination of a commercial message to target audiences in more than one country. Target audiences vary from country to country in terms of how they perceive or interpret symbols or stimuli; respond to humor or emotional appeals, as well as in levels of literacy and languages are spoken. How the advertising function is organized also varies.
International advertising can explain as the communication process that takes place in different cultures that varies in terms of values, communication styles, and consumption patterns. International advertising is also a business activity involving advertisers and advertising agencies that create ads and buy media in different countries. It is also a major force that both reflects social values and propagates certain values all over the world.
The International Communication Process:
The international communication process involves using the entire promotional mix to communicate with the final consumer. First, the appropriate message is determining the target audience by the advertiser. Next, the international sponsor (sender), usually representing by an advertising agency, encodes a message into words and images.
The message is then translating into the language of the target market and transmitting through a channel of media channels to the audience who then decodes and reacts to the message. Cultural barriers may hamper the effective transmission of the message at each stage in the process and result in miscommunication.
Art Direction:
Art direction is involving with the visual presentation- the body language of print and broadcast advertising. Some types of visual presentation are universally understood. Revlon, for example, has used a French producer to develop television commercials, English and Spanish for use in the international markets. These commercials, which are the film in Parisian settings, communicate the universal appeals and specific advantages of Revlon products.
By producing its ads In France, Revlon obtains effective television commercials at a much lower price than it would have to pay for similar –length commercials produce in the US. Pepsi Co has use four basic commercials to communicate its advertising themes. The basic setting of young people having fun at a party or on a beach has adapted to reflect the general physical environment and racial characteristics of North America, South America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. The music in these commercials has also adapted to suit regional tastes.
The international advertiser must make sure that visual executions are not inappropriately extending into markets. Benetton recently encounters a problem with its “United Colors of Benetton” campaign. The campaign appeared in 77 countries, primarily in print and on billboards. The art direction focused on striking, provocative interracial juxtapositions- a white hand a black hand handcuffed together, for example, another version of the campaign, depicting a black woman nursing a white baby, won adverting awards in France and Italy. However, because the image evoked the history of slavery in America, that particular creative execution was not in the U.S market.
Cultural Considerations:
Knowledge of cultural diversity, especially the symbolism associated with cultural traits, is essential when creating advertising. Local country managers will be able to share important information, such as when to use cautions in advertising creativity. Use of colors and man-women relationships can often be stumbling blocks. For example, white in Asia is associated with death. In Japan, intimate scenes between men and women are considered to be in bad taste; they are an outlaw in Saudi Arabia.
Advertising Communication System:
Advertising communication always involves a perception process and four of the elements shown in the model: the source, a message, a communication channel, and a receiver. Also, the receiver will sometimes become a source of information by talking to friends or associates. This type of communication is termed word-of-mouth communication, and it involves social interactions between two or more people and the important ideas of group influence and the diffusion of information.
An advertising message can have a variety of effects upon the receiver. It can
Create awareness,
Communicate information about attributes and benefits,
Develop or change an image or personality,
Associate a brand with feelings and emotions,
Forms group norms, and
Precipitate behavior.
Thus we see advertising has multiple layers to it. A lot more than what meets the consumer’s eye goes into creating a successful advertisement or an advertisement campaign. In today’s era of consumerism, the need for advertisements to break the clutter and stand out becomes imperative. Advertising has multiple media at its disposal with each having its respective strengths and limitations.
For instance, the radio still, has a reach to rural India like no other medium can. Also, it overcomes the barrier of illiteracy in a developing country like India. On the other hand mailers, pop-ups are an excellent way to remain visible to the urban techno-savvy Internet using consumers. Depending on the target audience the medium best suited should exploit to the hilt.
How to Explain the concept of International Advertising? #Pixabay
International Advertising Essay; generally speaking, is the promotion of goods, services, companies, and ideas, usually in more than one country performed by an identified sponsor. Marketers see advertising as part of an overall promotional strategy. Other components of the promotional mix include publicity, public relations, personal selling, and sales promotion.
Explaining, Essay, What is International Advertising?
Advertising is a cogent communication attempt to change or reinforce ones’ prior attitude that is predictive of future behavior. Also, learn, What do you understand about International Advertising? Meaning, Definition, and Start-UP.
It can view as a communication process that takes place in multiple cultures that differ in terms of values, communication styles, and consumption patterns. It is also a business activity involving advertisers and advertising agencies that create ads and buy media in different countries. The total of these activities constitutes a worldwide industry that is growing in importance. Globally advertising is also a major force that both reflects social values and propagates certain values worldwide.
There are two main purposes of international advertising research:
To assist business executives to make profitable foreign advertising decisions for their specific products and services, and.
To contribute to a general knowledge of foreign advertising. That is potentially useful to a variety of business executives, educators, government policymakers.
Advertising self-regulatory organizations and others were interesting in understanding the process and effects of global advertising.
Export agencies and their foreign affiliates serving international industrial (now called business-to-business) advertisers tended to translate and adapt domestic advertising materials for use abroad. Agencies serving international advertisers of consumer products tended to depend somewhat more on foreign correspondent agencies to develop localized advertising campaigns appropriate for their particular markets.
When was started International Advertising?
In the first 30 years of the 1900s, especially in the prosperous 1920s. Increasing numbers of European and US manufacturers sold branded consumers or industrial products outside their home countries. Some of them utilized ”export advertising agencies“. Most such agencies depended primarily on foreign agencies (called affiliate, associate, or correspondent agencies) either to modify domestic campaigns or to initiate entirely new campaigns, whichever was appropriate from their clients’ point of view.
Between 1930 and the mid-1950s the number of the export or globally advertising agencies declined. In 1958 in the USA six full-service advertising agencies and a handful of export/foreign advertising agencies were capable of providing international services for their US clients. These six accounted for more than 90% of all international billings of US agencies. Into the 1960s most exporters and manufacturers with foreign subsidiaries necessarily continued to utilize.
Local foreign advertising agency services available in the countries in which they did business. In the 1970s and 1980s, many consolidations and mergers led to the emergence of large foreign media buying organizations and large holding companies consisting of groups of globally advertising agencies. From the 1980s onward, advertising practices within domestic advertising agencies in Europe and the USA continued to improve.
What is International Advertising? Introduction and Meaning
