Tag: Definition

Definition!

What is a Definition? It is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). As well as, Descriptions can classify into two large categories, intentional purposes (which try to give the essence of a term) and extensional purposes (which proceed by listing the objects that a term describes).

Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive illustrations, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. Also, A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings and thus require multiple reports.

  • A statement of the meaning of a word or word group or a sign or symbol dictionary definitions. The statement expresses the essential nature of something, a product of defining.
  • The action or process of stating the meaning of a word or word group.

  • What is Cells Biology?

    What is Cells Biology?

    Cells biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life. Focusing on the cell permits a detailed understanding of the tissues and organisms that cells compose. Some organisms have only one cell, while others are organized into cooperative groups with huge numbers of cells. On the whole, cell biology focuses on the structure and function of a cell, from the most general properties shared by all cells, to the unique, highly intricate functions particular to specialized cells.

    Cells Defined: One of the basic tenets of biology is that all living things are composed of one or more cells. Some organisms consist of a single cell, while others have multiple cells organized into tissues, and tissues organized into organs. In many living things, organs function together as an organ system. However, even in these complex organisms, the basic biology revolves around the activities of the cell.

    Cells Biology

    The starting point for this discipline might be considered the 1830s. Though scientists had been using microscopes for centuries, they were not always sure what they were looking at. Robert Hooke’s initial observation in 1665 of plant-cell walls in slices of cork was followed shortly by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek’s first descriptions of live cells with visible moving parts. In the 1830s two scientists who were colleagues Schleiden, looking at plant cells, and Schwann, looking first at animal cells provided the first clearly stated definition of the cell. Their definition stated that all living creatures, both simple and complex, are made out of one or more cells, and the cell is the structural and functional unit of life a concept that became known as cell theory.

    As microscopes and staining techniques improved over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scientists were able to see more and more internal detail within cells. The microscopes used by van Leeuwenhoek probably magnified specimens a few hundredfold. Today high-powered electron microscopes can magnify specimens more than a million times and can reveal the shapes of organelles at the scale of a micrometer and below. With confocal microscopy a series of images can be combined, allowing researchers to generate detailed three-dimensional representations of cells. These improved imaging techniques have helped us better understand the wonderful complexity of cells and the structures they form.

    There are several main subfields within cell biology. One is the study of cell energy and the biochemical mechanisms that support cell metabolism. As cells are machines unto themselves, the focus on cell energy overlaps with the pursuit of questions of how energy first arose in original primordial cells, billions of years ago. Another subfield of cell biology concerns the genetics of the cell and its tight interconnection with the proteins controlling the release of genetic information from the nucleus to the cell cytoplasm. Yet another subfield focuses on the structure of cell components, known as subcellular compartments. Cutting across many biological disciplines is the additional subfield of cell biology, concerned with cell communication and signaling, concentrating on the messages that cells give to and receive from other cells and themselves. And finally, there is the subfield primarily concerned with the cell cycle, the rotation of phases beginning and ending with cell division and focused on different periods of growth and DNA replication. Many cell biologists dwell at the intersection of two or more of these subfields as our ability to analyze cells in more complex ways expands.

    In line with the continually increasing interdisciplinary study, the recent emergence of systems biology has affected many biological disciplines; it is a methodology that encourages the analysis of living systems within the context of other systems. In the field of cell biology, systems biology has enabled the asking and answering of more complex questions, such as the interrelationships of gene regulatory networks, evolutionary relationships between genomes, and the interactions between intracellular signaling networks. Ultimately, the broader a lens we take on our discoveries in cell biology, the more likely we can decipher the complexities of all living systems, large and small.

    One of the first scientists to observe cells was Englishman Robert Hooke. In the mid-1600s, Hooke examined a thin slice of cork through the newly developed microscope. The microscopic compartments in the cork impressed him and reminded him of rooms in a monastery, known as cells. He therefore referred to the units as cells. Later in that century, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch merchant, made further observations of plant, animal, and microorganism cells. In 1838, German botanist Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are composed of cells. A year later, his colleague, anatomist Theodor Schwann, concluded that all animals are also composed of cells. In 1858, biologist Rudolf Virchow proposed that all living things are made of cells and that all cells arise from preexisting cells. These premises have come down to us as the cell theory.

    Cells

    Movement Through the Plasma Membrane

    In order for the cell cytoplasm to communicate with the external environment, materials must be able to move through the plasma membrane. This movement occurs through several mechanisms.

    Diffusion: One method of movement through the membrane is diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. This movement occurs because the molecules are constantly colliding with one another. The net movement of the molecules is away from the region of high concentration to the region of low concentration.

    Diffusion is a random movement of molecules down the pathway called the concentration gradient. Molecules are said to move down the concentration gradient because they move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. A drop of dye placed in a beaker of water illustrates diffusion as the dye molecules spread out and color the water.

    Osmosis: Another method of movement across the membrane is osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. Osmosis occurs across a membrane that is semipermeable. A semipermeable membrane lets only certain molecules pass through while keeping other molecules out. Osmosis is really a type of diffusion involving only water molecules.

    Facilitated diffusion: A third mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane is facilitated diffusion. Certain proteins in the membrane assist facilitated diffusion by permitting only certain molecules to pass across the membrane. The proteins encourage movement in the direction that diffusion would normally take place, from a region with a higher concentration of molecules to a region of lower concentration.

    Active transport: A fourth method for movement across the membrane is active transport. When active transport is taking place, a protein moves a certain material across the membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. Because this movement is happening against the concentration gradient, the cell must expend energy that is usually derived from a substance called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP (see Chapter 4). An example of active transport occurs in human nerve cells. Here, sodium ions are constantly transported out of the cell into the external fluid bathing the cell, a region of high concentration of sodium. (This transport of sodium sets up the nerve cell for the impulse that will occur within it later.)

    Endocytosis and exocytosis: The final mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane into the cell is endocytosis, a process in which a small patch of plasma membrane encloses particles or tiny volumes of fluid that are at or near the cell surface. The membrane enclosure then sinks into the cytoplasm and pinches off from the membrane, forming a vesicle that moves into the cytoplasm. When the vesicle contains solid particulate matter, the process is called phagocytosis. When the vesicle contains droplets of fluid, the process is called pinocytosis. Along with the other mechanisms for transport across the plasma membrane, endocytosis ensures that the internal cellular environment will be able to exchange materials with the external environment and that the cell will continue to thrive and function. Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis, where internally produced substances are enclosed in vesicles and fuse with the cell membrane, releasing the contents to the exterior of the cell.

    The Structure of Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cells

    During the 1950s, scientists developed the concept that all organisms may be classified as prokaryotes or eukaryotes. The cells of all prokaryotes and eukaryotes possess two basic features: a plasma membrane, also called a cell membrane, and cytoplasm. However, the cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes. For example, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells lack internal cellular bodies (organelles), while eukaryotic cells possess them. Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea. Examples of eukaryotes are protists, fungi, plants, and animals (everything except prokaryotes).

    Plasma membrane: All prokaryote and eukaryote cells have plasma membranes. The plasma membrane (also known as the cell membrane) is the outermost cell surface, which separates the cell from the external environment. The plasma membrane is composed primarily of proteins and lipids, especially phospholipids. The lipids occur in two layers (a bilayer). Proteins embedded in the bilayer appear to float within the lipid, so the membrane is constantly in flux. The membrane is therefore referred to as a fluid mosaic structure. Within the fluid mosaic structure, proteins carry out most of the membrane’s functions.

    The “Movement through the Plasma Membrane” section later in this chapter describes the process by which materials pass between the interior and exterior of a cell.

    Cytoplasm and organelles: All prokaryote and eukaryote cells also have cytoplasm (or cytosol), a semiliquid substance that composes the volume of a cell. Essentially, cytoplasm is the gel-like material enclosed by the plasma membrane.

    Within the cytoplasm of eukaryote cells are a number of membrane-bound bodies called organelles (“little organs”) that provide a specialized function within the cell.

    One example of an organelle is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER is a series of membranes extending throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. In some places, the ER is studded with submicroscopic bodies called ribosomes. This type of ER is called rough ER. In other places, there are no ribosomes. This type of ER is called smooth ER. The rough ER is the site of protein synthesis in a cell because it contains ribosomes; however, the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is responsible for producing lipids. Within the ribosomes, amino acids are actually bound together to form proteins. Cisternae are spaces within the folds of the ER membranes.

    Another organelle is the Golgi apparatus (also called Golgi body). The Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened sacs, usually curled at the edges. In the Golgi body, the cell’s proteins and lipids are processed and packaged before being sent to their final destination. To accomplish this function, the outermost sac of the Golgi body often bulges and breaks away to form drop like vesicles known as secretory vesicles.

    An organelle called the lysosome (see Figure) is derived from the Golgi body. It is a drop like sac of enzymes in the cytoplasm. These enzymes are used for digestion within the cell. They break down particles of food taken into the cell and make the products available for use; they also help break down old cell organelles. Enzymes are also contained in a cytoplasmic body called the peroxisome.

    Diagram of an Animal Cells Biology
    Diagram of an Animal Cells Biology

    Figure The components of an idealized eukaryotic cell. The diagram shows the relative sizes and locations of the cell parts.

    The organelle that releases quantities of energy to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the mitochondrion (the plural form is mitochondria). Because mitochondria are involved in energy release and storage, they are called the “powerhouses of the cells.”

    Green plant cells, for example, contain organelles known as chloroplasts, which function in the process of photosynthesis. Within chloroplasts, energy from the sun is absorbed and transformed into the energy of carbohydrate molecules. Plant cells specialized for photosynthesis contain large numbers of chloroplasts, which are green because the chlorophyll pigments within the chloroplasts are green. Leaves of a plant contain numerous chloroplasts. Plant cells not specializing in photosynthesis (for example, root cells) are not green.

    An organelle found in mature plant cells is a large, fluid-filled central vacuole. The vacuole may occupy more than 75 percent of the plant cell. In the vacuole, the plant stores nutrients, as well as toxic wastes. Pressure within the growing vacuole may cause the cell to swell.

    The cytoskeleton is an interconnected system of fibers, threads, and interwoven molecules that give structure to the cell. The main components of the cytoskeleton are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. All are assembled from subunits of protein.

    The centriole organelle is a cylinder like structure that occurs in pairs. Centrioles function in cell division.

    Many cells have specialized cytoskeletal structures called flagella and cilia. Flagella are long, hair like organelles that extend from the cell, permitting it to move. In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, the flagella rotate like the propeller of a motorboat. In eukaryotic cells, such as certain protozoa and sperm cells, the flagella whip about and propel the cell. Cilia are shorter and more numerous than flagella. In moving cells, the cilia wave in unison and move the cell forward. Paramecium is a well-known ciliated protozoan. Cilia are also found on the surface of several types of cells, such as those that line the human respiratory tract.

    Nucleus: Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus; the word prokaryotic means “primitive nucleus.” Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, have a distinct nucleus.

    The nucleus of eukaryotic cells is composed primarily of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. The DNA is tightly wound around special proteins called histones; the mixture of DNA and histone proteins is called chromatin. The chromatin is folded even further into distinct threads called chromosomes. Functional segments of the chromosomes are referred to as genes. Approximately 21,000 genes are located in the nucleus of all human cells.

    The nuclear envelope, an outer membrane, surrounds the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane, consisting of two lipid layers (similar to the plasma membrane). Pores in the nuclear envelope allow the internal nuclear environment to communicate with the external nuclear environment.

    Within the nucleus are two or more dense organelles referred to as nucleoli (the singular form is nucleolus). In nucleoli, submicroscopic particles known as ribosomes are assembled before their passage out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

    Although prokaryotic cells have no nucleus, they do have DNA. The DNA exists freely in the cytoplasm as a closed loop. It has no protein to support it and no membrane covering it. A bacterium typically has a single looped chromosome.

    Cell Wall

    Many kinds of prokaryotes and eukaryotes contain a structure outside the cell membrane called the cell wall. With only a few exceptions, all prokaryotes have thick, rigid cell walls that give them their shape. Among the eukaryotes, some protists, and all fungi and plants, have cell walls. Cell walls are not identical in these organisms, however. In fungi, the cell wall contains a polysaccharide called chitin. Plant cells, in contrast, have no chitin; their cell walls are composed exclusively of the polysaccharide cellulose.

    Cell walls provide support and help cells resist mechanical pressures, but they are not solid, so materials are able to pass through rather easily. Cell walls are not selective devices, as plasma membranes are.

  • What is Cells?

    What is Cells?

    The cell (from Latin cella, meaning “small room”) is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, and cells are often called the “building blocks of life”. The study of cells is called cell biology.

    Cells

    Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion (1012) cell. Most plant and animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometers.

    The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the biological unit for its resemblance to cell inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cell, that cell are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, that all cell come from preexisting cell, and that all cell contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.

    Types of Cells

    Eukaryote and Prokaryote Cells
    Eukaryote and Prokaryote

    Prokaryote Cells

    Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterized by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus. Prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria, and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter.

    A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:

    I. Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope generally consisting of a plasma membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a capsule. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermo-plasma (archaea) which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell wall.

    II. Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular. Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid. Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.

    III. On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell’s surface. These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells.

    The Structure of Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cells
    The Structure of Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cells

    Eukaryote Cells

    Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus, an organelle that houses the cell’s DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means “true kernel (nucleus)”. Other differences include:

    I. The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.

    II. The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.

    III. Many eukaryotic cell are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be “viewed as a sensory cellular antenna that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation.”

    IV. Motile cells of eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are absent in conifers and flowering plants. Eukaryotic flagella are less complex than those of prokaryotes.

  • What is Biology?

    What is Biology?

    The study of living organisms, divided into many specialized fields that cover their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution; The plants and animals of a particular area, and the physiology, behavior, and other qualities of a particular organism or class of organisms.

    Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of many branches and sub disciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research, consolidating it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the synthesis and creation of new species. It is also understood today that all the organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable and vital condition known as homeostasis.

    History of Biology:

    The term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, “life” and the suffix -λογία, -logia, “study of.” The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica. It was used again in 1766 in a work entitled Philosophiae Naturalis sive physicae: tomus III, Continens Geologian, biologian, phytologian generalis, by Michael Christoph Hanov, a disciple of Christian Wolff. The first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus’ work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, Grundzüge der Lehre van der Lebenskraft. Karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective (Propädeutik zum Studien der GE Samm ten Heilkunst). The term came into its modern usage with the six-volume treatise Biologie, oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur (1802–22) by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, who announced; The objects of our research will be the different forms and manifestations of life, the conditions and laws under which these phenomena occur, and the causes through which they have been effected. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the name biology [Biologie] or the doctrine of life [Lebenslehre].

    Biology is the study of living things. It encompasses the cellular basis of living things, the energy metabolism that underlies the activities of life, and the genetic basis for inheritance in organisms. Biology also includes the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms and the diversity of life on Earth. It considers the biology of microorganisms, plants, and animals, for example, and it brings together the structural and functional relationships that underlie their day-to-day activities. Biology draws on the sciences of chemistry and physics for its foundations and applies the laws of these disciplines to living things.

    Biology living world scale
    Biology – Living World Scale

    Many sub disciplines and special areas of biology exist, which can be conveniently divided into practical and theoretical categories. Types of practical biology include plant breeding, wildlife management, medical science, and crop production. Theoretical biology encompasses such disciplines as physiology (the study of the function of living things), biochemistry (the study of the chemistry of organisms), taxonomy (classification), ecology (the study of populations and their interactions with each other and their environments), and microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms).

    Their fascination with biology has a long history. Even early humans had to study the animals that they hunted and know where to find the plants that they gathered for food. The invention of agriculture was the first great advance of human civilization. Medicine has been important to us from earliest history as well. The earliest known medical texts are from China (2500 B.C.), Mesopotamia (2112 B.C.), and Egypt (1800 B.C.).

    In classical times, Aristotle is often considered to be the first to practice scientific zoology. He is known to have performed extensive studies of marine life and plants. His student, Theophrastus, wrote one of the West’s earliest known botanical texts in 300 B.C. on the structure, life cycle and uses of plants. The Roman physician Galen used his experience in patching up gladiators for the arena to write texts on surgical procedures in A.D. 158.

    During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci risked censure by participating in human dissection and making detailed anatomical drawings that are still considered among the most beautiful ever made. Invention of the printing press and the ability to reproduce woodcut illustrations meant that information was much easier to record and disseminate. One of the first illustrated biology books is a botanical text written by German botanist Leonhard Fuchs in 1542. Binomial classification was inaugurated by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735, using Latin names to group species according to their characteristics.

    Microscopes opened up new worlds for scientists. In 1665, Robert Hooke, used a simple compound microscope to examine a thin sliver of cork. He observed that the plant tissue consisted of rectangular units that reminded him of the tiny rooms used by monks. He called these units “cells.” In 1676, Anton von Leeuwenhoek published the first drawings of living single celled organisms. Theodore Schwann added the information that animal tissue is also composed of cells in 1839.

    During the Victorian era, and throughout the 19th century, “Natural Science” became something of a mania. Thousands of new species were discovered and described by intrepid adventurers and by backyard botanists and entomologists alike. In 1812, Georges Cuvier described fossils and hypothesized that Earth had undergone “successive bouts of Creation and destruction” over long periods of time. On Nov. 24, 1859, Charles Darwin published “On the Origin of Species,” the text that forever changed the world by showing that all living things are interrelated and that species were not separately created but arise from ancestral forms that are changed and shaped by adaptation to their environment.

    While much of the world’s attention was captured by biology questions at the macroscopic organism level, a quiet monk was investigating how living things pass traits from one generation to the next. Gregor Mendel is now known as the father of genetics although is papers on inheritance, published in 1866, went largely unnoticed at the time. His work was rediscovered in 1900 and further understanding of inheritance rapidly followed.

    The 20th and 21st centuries may be known to future generations as the beginning of the “Biological Revolution.” Beginning with Watson and Crick explaining the structure and function of DNA in 1953, all fields of biology have expanded exponentially and touch every aspect of our lives. Medicine will be changed by development of therapies tailored to a patient’s genetic blueprint or by combining biology and technology with brain-controlled prosthetics. Economies hinge on the proper management of ecological resources, balancing human needs with conservation. We may discover ways to save our oceans while using them to produce enough food to feed the nations. We may “grow” batteries from bacteria or light buildings with bioluminescent fungi. The possibilities are endless; biology is just coming into its own.

    Characteristics of Living Things:

    Defining a living thing is a difficult proposition, as is defining “life”—that property possessed by living things. However, a living thing possesses certain properties that help define what life is.

    Biology Human Lifecycle
    Biology Human Life-cycle

    Complex organization: Living things have a level of complexity and organization not found in lifeless objects. At its most fundamental level, a living thing is composed of one or more cells. These units, generally too small to be seen with the naked eye, are organized into tissues. A tissue is a series of cells that accomplish a shared function. Tissues, in turn, form organs, such as the stomach and kidney. A number of organs working together compose an organ system. An organism is a complex series of various organ systems.

    Metabolism: Living things exhibit a rapid turnover of chemical materials, which is referred to as metabolism. Metabolism involves exchanges of chemical matter with the external environment and extensive transformations of organic matter within the cells of a living organism. Metabolism generally involves the release or use of chemical energy. Nonliving things do not display metabolism.

    Responsiveness: All living things are able to respond to stimuli in the external environment. For example, living things respond to changes in light, heat, sound, and chemical and mechanical contact. To detect stimuli, organisms have means for receiving information, such as eyes, ears, and taste buds.

    To respond effectively to changes in the environment, an organism must coordinate its responses. A system of nerves and a number of chemical regulators called hormones coordinate activities within an organism. The organism responds to the stimuli by means of a number of effectors, such as muscles and glands. Energy is generally used in the process.

    Organisms change their behavior in response to changes in the surrounding environment. For example, an organism may move in response to its environment. Responses such as this occur in definite patterns and make up the behavior of an organism. The behavior is active, not passive; an animal responding to a stimulus is different from a stone rolling down a hill. Living things display responsiveness; nonliving things do not.

    Growth: Growth requires an organism to take in material from the environment and organize the material into its own structures. To accomplish growth, an organism expends some of the energy it acquires during metabolism. An organism has a pattern for accomplishing the building of growth structures.

    During growth, a living organism transforms material that is unlike itself into materials that are like it. A person, for example, digests a meal of meat and vegetables and transforms the chemical material into more of himself or herself. A nonliving organism does not display this characteristic.

    Reproduction: A living thing has the ability to produce copies of itself by the process known as reproduction. These copies are made while the organism is still living. Among plants and simple animals, reproduction is often an extension of the growth process. More complex organisms engage in a type of reproduction called sexual reproduction, in which two parents contribute to the formation of a new individual. During this process, a new combination of traits can be produced.

    Asexual reproduction involves only one parent, and the resulting cells are generally identical to the parent cell. For example, bacteria grow and quickly reach maturity, after which they split into two organisms by a process of asexual reproduction called binary fission.

    Evolution: Living organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment through the process of evolution. During evolution, changes occur in populations, and the organisms in the population become better able to metabolize, respond, and reproduce. They develop abilities to cope with their environment that their ancestors did not have.

    Evolution also results in a greater variety of organisms than existed in previous eras. This proliferation of populations of organisms is unique to living things.

    Ecology: The environment influences the living things that it surrounds. Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their relationships with their environment. Both biotic factors (living things) and abiotic factors (non-living things) can alter the environment. Rain and sunlight are non-living components, for example, that greatly influence the environment. Living things may migrate or hibernate if the environment becomes difficult to live in.

  • Do You Really Want to your Own a Business?

    Do You Really Want to your Own a Business?

    If “Yes” So, this article of post little help you How to Start. “Hope springs eternal in the human breast,” said English poet and essayist Alexander Pope several centuries ago. He wasn’t describing people expanding or starting a business, but he may as well have been. Everyone who goes into business for themselves hopes to meet or surpass a set of personal goals.

    A business (also known as an enterprise, a company or a firm) is an organizational entity involved in the provision of goods and services to consumers. Businesses serve as a form of economic activity and are prevalent in capitalist economies, where most of them are privately owned and provide goods and services allocated through a market to consumers and customers in exchange for other goods, services, money, or other forms of exchange that hold intrinsic economic value. Businesses may also be social non-profit enterprises or state-owned public enterprises operated by governments with specific social and economic objectives. A business owned by multiple private individuals may form an incorporated company or jointly organize as a partnership. Countries have different laws that may ascribe different rights to the various business entities.

    The word “business” can refer to a particular organization or to an entire market sector (for example: “the financial sector”) or to the sum of all economic activity (“the business sector”). Compound forms such as “agribusiness” represent subsets of the concept’s broader meaning, which encompasses all activity by suppliers of goods and services.

    Sole Ownership: A sole proprietorship (ownership), also known as a sole trader, is owned by one person and operates for their benefit. The owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, whether from operating costs or judgments against the business. All assets of the business belong to a sole proprietor, including, for example, a computer infrastructure, any inventory, manufacturing equipment, or retail fixtures, as well as any real property owned by the sole proprietor.

    Do You Really Want to your Own a Business - Sole Ownership

    While your particular configuration is sure to be unique, perhaps you will agree with some of the ones I have compiled over the years from talking to hundreds of budding entrepreneurs.

    Independence: A search for freedom and independence is the driving force behind many businesspeople. Wasn’t it Johnny Paycheck who wrote the song “Take This Job and Shove It?”

    Personal Fulfillment: For many people, owning a business is a genuinely fulfilling experience, one that lifetime employees never know.

    Lifestyle Change: many people find that while they can make a good income working for other people, they are missing some of life’s precious moments. With the flexibility of small business ownership, you can take time to stop and smell the roses.

    Respect: Successful small business owners are respected, both by themselves and their peers.

    Money: You can get rich in a small business, or at least do very well financially. most entrepreneurs don’t get wealthy, but some do. If money is your motivator, admit it.

    Power: When it is your business, you can have your employees do it your way. There is a little Ghengis Khan in us all, so don’t be surprised if power is one of your goals. If it is, think about how to use this goal in a constructive way.

    Right Livelihood: From natural foods to solar power to many types of service businesses, a great many cause-driven small businesses have done very well by doing good.

    If owning a small business can help a person accomplish these goals, it’s small wonder that so many are started. Unfortunately, while the potential for great success exists, so do many risks. Running a small business may require that you sacrifice some short-term comforts for long-term benefits. It is hard, demanding work that requires a wide variety of skills few people are born with. But even if you possess (or more likely acquire) the skills and determination you need to successfully run a business, your business will need one more critical ingredient: money.

    You need money to start your business, money to keep it running, and money to make it grow. This is not the same thing as saying you can guarantee success in your small business if you begin with a fat wallet. now, let me confess to one major bias here. I believe that most small business owners and founders are better off starting small and borrowing, or otherwise raising, as little money as possible. Put another way, there is no such thing as “raising plenty of capital to ensure success.” Unless you, as the prospective business founder, learn to get the most mileage out of every dollar, you may go broke and will surely spend more than you need to. But that doesn’t mean that you should try to save money by selling cheap merchandise or providing marginal services. In today’s competitive economy, your customers want the best you can give them at the best price. They will remember the quality of what they get from you long after they have forgotten how much they paid.

    In practical terms, that means you must buy only the best goods for your customers. Anything that affects the image your business has in your customer’s mind should be first-rate. It also means that you shouldn’t spend money on things that don’t affect the customer. For example, unless you’re a real estate broker your customers probably won’t care if you drive an old, beat-up car to an office in a converted broom closet, as long as you provide them an honest product or service for an honest price. Save the nice car, fancy office, and mobile telephone until after your business is a success.

    Self-Evaluation Exercises

    Here’s a question to ponder: Are you the right person for your business? Because running a business is a very demanding endeavor that can take most of your time and energy, your business probably will suffer if you’re unhappy. Your business can become an albatross around your neck if you don’t have the skills and temperament to run it. Simply put, I’ve learned that no business, whether or not it has sound financial backing, is likely to succeed unless you, as the prospective owner, make two decisions correctly:

    • You must honestly evaluate yourself to decide whether you possess the skills and personality needed to succeed in a small business.
    • You must choose the right business.

    A small business is a very personal endeavor. It will honestly reflect your opinions and attitudes, whether or not you design it that way. Think of it this way: The shadow your business casts will be your shadow. If you are sloppy, rude, crafty, or naively trusting, your business will mirror these attributes. If your personal characteristics are more positive than those, your business will be more positive, too. To put this concretely, suppose you go out for the Sunday paper and are met by a newsie who is groggy from a hangover and badmouths his girlfriend in front of you. chances are that next Sunday will find you at a different newsstand.

    I’m not saying you need to be psychologically perfect to run a small business. But to succeed, you must ask people for their money every day and convince a substantial number of them to give it to you. By providing your goods or services, you will create intimate personal relationships with a number of people. It makes no difference whether you refer to people who give you money as clients, customers, patients, members, students, or disciples. It makes a great deal of difference to your chances of ultimate success if you understand that these people are exchanging their money for the conviction that you are giving them their money’s worth.

    The following self-evaluation exercises will help you assess whether you have what it takes to successfully run a small business. Take out a blank sheet of paper or open a computer file.

    Your Strong and Weak Points

    Take a few minutes to list your personal and business strengths and weaknesses. Include everything you can think of, even if it doesn’t appear to be related to your business. For instance, your strong points may include the mastery of a hobby, your positive personality traits, and your sexual charisma, as well as your specific business skills. Take your time and be generous.

    To provide you with a little help, I include a sample list for Antoinette Gorzak, a personal friend who has what she hopes is a good business idea: a slightly different approach to selling women’s clothing. You’ll get to know her better as we go along. Her strengths, weaknesses, fantasies, and fears are surely different from yours. So, too, almost certainly, is the business she wants to start. So be sure to make your own lists—don’t copy Antoinette’s.

    Your list of strong and weak points will help you see any obvious conflicts between your personality and the business you’re in or want to start. For example, if you don’t like being around people but plan to start a life insurance agency with you as the primary salesperson, you may have a personality clash with your business. The solution might be to find another part of the insurance business that doesn’t require as much people contact.

    Unfortunately, many people don’t realize that their personalities will have a direct bearing on their business success. An example close to the experience of folks at nolo involves bookstores. In the years since nolo began publishing, they have seen all sorts of people, from retired librarians to unemployed Ph.D.’s, open bookstores. A large percentage of these stores have failed because the skills needed to run a successful bookstore involve more than a love of books.

    General and Specific Skills Your Business Needs

    Businesses need two kinds of skills to survive and prosper: Skills for business in general and skills specific to the particular business. For example, every business needs someone to keep good financial records. on the other hand, the tender touch and manual dexterity needed by glassblowers are not skills needed by the average paving contractor. Next, take a few minutes and list the skills your business needs. don’t worry about making an exhaustively complete list, just jot down the first things that come to mind. make sure you have some general business skills as well as some of the more important skills specific to your particular business.

    If you don’t have all the skills your business needs, your backers will want to know how you will make up for the deficiency. For example, let’s say you want to start a trucking business. You have a good background in maintenance, truck repair, and long distance driving, and you know how to sell and get work. Sounds good so far—but, let’s say you don’t know the first thing about bookkeeping or cash flow management and the thought of using a computer makes you nervous. Because some trucking businesses work on large dollar volumes, small profit margins, and slow-paying customers, your backers will expect you to learn cash flow management or hire someone qualified to handle that part of the business.

    Your Likes and Dislikes

    Take a few minutes and make a list of the things you really like doing and those you don’t enjoy. Write this list without thinking about the business—simply concentrate on what makes you happy or unhappy.

    If you enjoy talking to new people, keeping books, or working with computers, be sure to include those. Put down all the activities you can think of that give you pleasure. Antoinette’s list is shown as an example.

    As a business owner, you will spend most of your waking hours in the business, and if it doesn’t make you happy, you probably won’t be very good at it. If this list creates doubts about whether you’re pursuing the right business, I suggest you let your unconscious mind work on the problem. most likely, you’ll know the answer after one or two good nights’ sleep.

    Specific Business Goals

    Finally, list your specific business goals. Exactly what do you want your business to accomplish for you? Freedom from 9 to 5? money—and if so, how much? more time with the children? making the world or your little part of it a better place? It’s your wish list, so be specific and enjoy writing it.

    How to Use the Self-evaluation Lists?

    After you’ve completed the four self-evaluation lists, spend some time reading them over. Take a moment to compare the skills needed in your business to the list of skills you have. do you have what it takes?

    Show them to your family and, if you’re brave, to your friends or anyone who knows you well and can be objective. of course, before showing the lists to anyone, you may choose to delete any private information that isn’t critical to your business. If you show your lists to someone who knows the tough realities of running a successful small business, so much the better. You may want to find a former teacher, a fellow employee, or someone else whose judgment you respect.

    What do they think? do they point out any obvious inconsistencies between your personality or skills and what you want to accomplish? If so, pay attention. Treat this exercise seriously and you will know yourself better. oh, and don’t destroy your lists. Assuming you go ahead with your business and write your business plan, the lists can serve as background material or even become part of the final plan.

    You have accomplished several things if you have followed these steps. You have looked inside and asked yourself some basic questions about who you are and what you are realistically qualified to do. As a result, you should now have a better idea of whether you are willing to pay the price required to be successful as a small businessperson. If you are still eager to have a business, you have said, “Yes, I am willing to make short-term sacrifices to achieve long-term benefits and to do whatever is necessary—no matter the inconvenience— to reach my goals.”

    Reality Check: Banker’s Analysis

    Banks and institutions that lend money have a lot of knowledge about the success rate of small businesses. Bankers are often overly cautious in making loans to small businesses. For that very reason it makes sense to study their approach, even though it may seem discouraging at first glance.

    Do You Really Want to your Own a Business - Bankers

    Banker’s Ideal

    Bankers look for an ideal loan applicant, who typically meets these requirements:

    • For an existing business, a cash flow sufficient to make the loan payments.
    • For a new business, an owner who has a track record of profitably owning and operating the same sort of business.
    • An owner with a sound, well-thought-out business plan.
    • An owner with financial reserves and personal collateral sufficient to solve the unexpected problems and fluctuations that affect all businesses.

    Why does such a person need a loan, you ask? He or she probably doesn’t, which, of course, is the point. People who lend money are most comfortable with people so close to their ideal loan candidate that they don’t need to borrow. However, to stay in business themselves, banks and other lenders must lend out the money deposited with them. To do this, they must lend to at least some people whose creditworthiness is less than perfect.

    Measuring Up to the Banker’s Ideal

    Who are these ordinary mortals who slip through bankers’ fine screens of approval? And more to the point, how can you qualify as one of them? Your job is to show how your situation is similar to the banker’s ideal.

    A good bet is the person who has worked for, or preferably managed, a successful business in the same field as the proposed new business. For example, if you have profitably run a clothing store for an absentee owner for a year or two, a lender may believe you are ready to do it on your own. All you need is a good location, a sound business plan, and a little capital. Then, watch out Neiman-Marcus!

    Further away from a lender’s ideal is the person who has sound experience managing one type of business, but proposes to start one in a different field. let’s say you ran the most profitable hot dog stand in the Squaw valley ski resort, and now you want to market computer software in the Silicon Valley of California. In your favor is your experience running a successful business. on the negative side is the fact that computer software marketing has

    no relationship to hot dog selling. In this situation, you might be able to get a loan if you hire people who make up for your lack of experience. At the very least, you would need someone with a strong software marketing background, as well as a person with experience managing retail sales and service businesses. naturally, both of those people are most desirable if they have many years of successful experience in the software marketing business, preferably in California.

    Use the Banker’s Ideal

    It’s helpful to use the bankers’ model in your decision-making process. Use a skeptical attitude as a counterweight to your optimism to get a balanced view of your prospects. What is it that makes you think you will be one of the minority of small business owners who will succeed? If you don’t have some specific answers, you are in trouble. most new businesses fail, and the large majority of survivors do not genuinely prosper.

    Many people start their own business because they can’t stand working for others. They don’t have a choice. They must be either boss or bum. They are more than willing to trade security for the chance to call the shots. They meet a good chunk of their goals when they leave their paycheck behind. This is fine as far as it goes, but in my experience, the more successful small business owners have other goals as well.

    A small distributor we know has a well thought-out business and a sound business plan for the future. Still, he believes that his own personal commitment is the most important thing he has going for him. He puts it this way: “I break my tail to live up to the commitments I make to my customers. If a supplier doesn’t perform for me, I’ll still do everything I can to keep my promise to my customer, even if it costs me money.” This sort of personal commitment enables this successful business owner to make short-term adjustments to meet his long-range goals. And while it would be an exaggeration to say he pays this price gladly, he does pay it.

    Note: This article of “Do You Really Want to your Own a Business?” from Internet and book of How to Write a Business Plan, only for share knowledge with help.

  • What is a Business Plan?

    What Is a Business Plan?

    A business plan is a written statement that describes and analyzes your business and gives detailed projections about its future. A business plan also covers the financial aspects of starting or expanding your business—how much money you need and how you’ll pay it back.

    Writing a business plan is a lot of work. So why take the time to write one? The best answer is the wisdom gained by literally millions of business owners just like you. Almost without exception, each business owner with a plan is pleased she has one, and each owner without a plan wishes he had written one.

    Why Write a Business Plan?

    Why Write a Business Plan?
    Why Write a Business Plan?

    Here are some of the specific and immediate benefits you will derive from writing your business plan.

    Helps You Get Money

    most lenders or investors require a written business plan before they will consider your proposal seriously. Even some landlords require a sound business plan before they will lease you space. Before making a commitment to you, they want to see that you have thought through critical issues facing you as a business owner and that you really understand your business. They also want to make sure your business has a good chance of succeeding.

    In my experience, about 35% to 40% of the people currently in business do not know how money flows through their business. Writing a business plan with this book teaches you where money comes from and where it goes. Is it any wonder that your backers want to see your plan before they consider your financial request?

    There are as many potential lenders and investors as there are prospective business owners. If you have a thoroughly thought-out business and financial plan that demonstrates a good likelihood of success and you are persistent, you will find the money you need. of course, it may take longer than you expect and require more work than you expect, but you will ultimately be successful if you believe in your business.

    Helps You Decide to Proceed or Stop

    one major theme of the book may surprise you. It’s as simple as it is important. You, as the prospective business owner, are the most important person you must convince of the soundness of your proposal. Therefore, much of the work you are asked to do here serves a dual purpose. It is designed to provide answers to all the questions that prospective lenders and investors will ask.

    But it will also teach you how money flows through your business, what the strengths and weaknesses in your business concept are, and what your realistic chances of success are.

    The detailed planning process described in this book is not infallible—nothing is in a small business—but it should help you uncover and correct flaws in your business concept. If this analysis demonstrates that your idea won’t work, you’ll be able to avoid starting or expanding your business. This is extremely important. It should go without saying that a great many businesspeople owe their ultimate success to an earlier decision not to start a business with built-in problems.

    Let’s You Improve Your Business Concept

    Writing a plan allows you to see how changing parts of the plan increases profits or accomplishes other goals. You can tinker with individual parts of your business with no cash outlay. If you’re using a computer spreadsheet to make financial projections, you can try out different alternatives even more quickly. This ability to fine-tune your plans and business design increases your chances of success.

    For example, let’s say that your idea is to start a business importing Korean leather jackets. Everything looks great on the first pass through your plan. Then you read an article about the declining exchange ratio of U.S. dollars to Korean currency. After doing some homework about exchange rate fluctuations, you decide to increase your profit margin on the jackets to cover anticipated declines in dollar purchasing power. This change shows you that your prices are still competitive with other jackets and that your average profits will increase. And you are now covered for any likely decline in exchange rates.

    Improves Your Odds of Success

    one way of looking at business is that it’s a gamble. You open or expand a business and gamble you’re and the bank’s or investor’s money. If you’re right, you make a profit and pay back the loans and everyone’s happy. But if your estimate is wrong, you and the bank or investors can lose money and experience the discomfort that comes from failure. (of course, a bank probably is protected because it has title to the collateral you put up to get the loan.)

    Writing a business plan helps beat the odds. most new, small businesses don’t last very long. And, most small businesses don’t have a business plan. Is that only a coincidence, or is there a connection between these two seemingly unconnected facts? my suggestion is this: let someone else prove the connection wrong. Why not be prudent and improve your odds by writing a plan?

    Helps You Keep on Track

    many business owners spend countless hours handling emergencies, simply because they haven’t learned how to plan ahead. This book helps you anticipate problems and solve them before they become disasters.

    A written business plan gives you a clear course toward the future and makes your decision making easier. Some problems and opportunities may represent a change of direction worth following, while others may be distractions that referring to your business plan will enable you to avoid. The black and white of your written business plan will help you face facts if things don’t work out as expected. For example, if you planned to be making a living three months after start-up, and six months later you’re going into the hole at the rate of $100 per day, your business plan should help you see that changes are necessary. It’s all too easy to delude yourself into keeping a business going that will never meet its goals if you approach things with a “just another month or two and I’ll be there” attitude, rather than comparing your results to your goals.

    Issues Beyond the Plan

    I have written this book to provide you with an overview of the issues that determine success or failure in a small business. Experienced lenders, investors, and entrepreneurs want a plan that takes these issues into account. of course, this book can’t cover everything. Here are some of the key business components that are left out of this initial planning process.

    Bookkeeping and Accounting

    This book discusses the numbers and concepts you as the business owner need to open and manage your small business. You have the responsibility to create bookkeeping and accounting systems and make sure they function adequately. One of the items generated by your

    accounting system will be a balance sheet. A balance sheet is a snapshot at a particular moment in time that lists the money value of everything you own and everything you owe to someone else.

    Taxes

    While there are a few mentions of tax issues throughout the book, most of the planning information doesn’t discuss how taxes will be calculated or paid. The book focuses its efforts on making a profit and a positive cash flow. If you make a profit, you’ll pay taxes and if you don’t make a profit, you’ll pay fewer taxes. A cPA or tax advisor can help you with tax strategies.

    Securities Laws

    If you plan to raise money by selling shares in a corporation or limited partnership, you’ll fall under state or federal securities regulations. You can, however, borrow money or take in a general partner without being affected by securities laws. A complete discussion of these issues is beyond the scope of this book. For now, take note that you must comply with securities regulations after you complete your plan and before you take any money into your business from selling shares or partnership interests.

    Your Management Skill

    This book shows you how to write a very good business plan and loan application. However, your ultimate success rests on your ability to implement your plans—on your management skills. If you have any doubts about your management ability, check out the resources other article. Also see another posts for a thought-stimulating discussion of management.

    Issues Specific to Your Business

    How successfully your business relates to the market, the business environment, and the competition may be affected by patents, franchises, foreign competition, location, and the like. of necessity, this book focuses on principles common to all businesses and does not discuss the specific items that distinguish your business from other businesses. For example, this post doesn’t discuss how to price your products to meet your competition; I assume that you have enough knowledge about your chosen business to answer that question.

  • What is CSR?

    What is CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility)?

    Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to business practices involving initiatives that benefit society. A business’s CSR can encompass a wide variety of tactics, from giving away a portion of a company’s proceeds to charity, to implementing “greener” business operations.

    Definition of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

    The movement aimed at encouraging companies to be more aware of the impact of their business on the rest of society, including their own stakeholders and the environment. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a business approach that contributes to sustainable development by delivering economic, social and environmental benefits for all stakeholders.

    CSR is a concept with many definitions and practices. The way it is understood and implemented differs greatly from each company and country. Moreover, CSR is a very broad concept that addresses many and various topics such as human rights, corporate governance, health and safety, environmental effects, working conditions and contribution to economic development. Whatever the definition is, the purpose of CSR is to drive change towards sustainability.

    Although some companies may achieve remarkable efforts with unique CSR initiatives, it is difficult to be on the forefront on all aspects of CSR. Considering this, the example below provides good practices on one aspect of CSR environmental sustainability.

    Corporate Social Responsibility
    Corporate Social Responsibility

    Example; Unilever is a multinational corporation, in the food and beverage sector, with a comprehensive CSR strategy. The company has been ranked “Food Industry leader’ in the Dow Jones Sustainability World Indexes for the 11 consecutive years and ranked 7th in the ‘Global 100 Most Sustainable Corporations in the World.”

    One of the major and unique initiatives is the ‘sustainable tea’ program.  On a partnership-based model with the Rainforest Alliance (an NGO), Unilever aims to source all of its Lipton and PG Tips tea bags from Rainforest Alliance Certified™ farms by 2015.  The Rainforest Alliance Certification offers farms a way to differentiate their products as being social, economically and environmentally sustainable.

    Other Definitions

    The World Business Council for Sustainable Development in its publication Making Good Business Sense by Lord Holme and Richard Watts used the following definition:

    Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large The same report gave some evidence of the different perceptions of what this should mean for a number of different societies across the world. Definitions as different as CSR is about capacity building for sustainable livelihoods. It respects cultural differences and finds the business opportunities in building the skills of employees, the community and the government of Ghana, through to CSR is about business giving back to society from the Philippines.

    Traditionally in the United States, CSR has been defined much more in terms of a philanthropist model. Companies make profits, unhindered except by fulfilling their duty to pay taxes. Then they donate a certain share of the profits to charitable causes. It is seen as tainting the act for the company to receive any benefit from the giving.

    What is the Social Responsibility of Business?

    Ever since Milton Friedman famously proclaimed “The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits” (NYTimes 1970), pundits have pondered whether his purist interpretation was really the only way.

    Profit is certainly a lot easier to quantify than something like ‘happiness’, but the intangible benefits of good, honest business clearly go way beyond pure finance Must the word ‘profit’ always refer to money in the strictest sense?

    Collected on this page are various interpretations of the idea of “social responsibility” and the responsibility of business to take an active, passive or indifferent role in building a more sustainable world.

    There are a few broad categories of social responsibility that many of today’s businesses are practicing:

    I) Environmental efforts: One primary focus of corporate social responsibility is the environment. Businesses regardless of size have a large carbon footprint. Any steps they can take to reduce those footprints are considered both good for the company and society as a whole.

    II) Philanthropy: Businesses also practice social responsibility by donating to national and local charities. Businesses have a lot of resources that can benefit charities and local community programs.

    III) Ethical labor practices: By treating employees fairly and ethically, companies can also demonstrate their corporate social responsibility. This is especially true of businesses that operate in international locations with labor laws that differ from those in the United States.

    IV) Volunteering: Attending volunteer events says a lot about a company’s sincerity. By doing good deeds without expecting anything in return, companies are able to express their concern for specific issues and support for certain organizations.

    Examples of Corporate Social Responsibility

    Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

    While many companies now practice some form of social responsibility, some are making it a core of their operations. Ben and Jerry’s, for instance, uses only fair trade ingredients and has developed a sustainability program for dairy farms in its home state of Vermont. Starbucks has created its C.A.F.E. Practices guidelines, which are designed to ensure the company sources sustainably grown and processed coffee by evaluating the economic, social and environmental aspects of coffee production. Tom’s Shoes, another notable example of a company with CSR at its core, donates one pair of shoes to a child in need for every pair a customer purchases.

    However, Stevens said companies need to really understand what their core social purpose is and how that aligns with their stated mission, to create a cohesive CSR strategy.

    For example, Stevens said that Kashi, a Kellogg’s brand, wants to increase organic farming and is one of the few certified organic kinds of cereal. Since only 1 percent of U.S. farmland is actually organic, the breakfast brand worked with Quality Insurance International to help certify new organic farmers across the nation.

  • Social Responsibility

    What is Meant by Social Responsibility?

    Social responsibility is an ethical framework and suggests that an entity, be it an organization or individual, has an obligation to act for the benefit of society at large. Social responsibility is a duty every individual has to perform so as to maintain a balance between the economy and the ecosystems. A trade-off may exist between economic development, in the material sense, and the welfare of the society and environment, though this has been challenged by many reports over the past decade. Social responsibility means sustaining the equilibrium between the two. It pertains not only to business organizations but also to everyone whose any action impacts the environment. This responsibility can be passive, by avoiding engaging in socially harmful acts, or active, by performing activities that directly advance social goals.

    Businesses can use ethical decision making to secure their businesses by making decisions that allow for government agencies to minimize their involvement with the corporation. For instance, if a company follows the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines for emissions of dangerous pollutants and even goes an extra step to get involved in the community and address those concerns that the public might have; they would be less likely to have the EPA investigate them for environmental concerns. “A significant element of current thinking about privacy, however, stresses “self-regulation” rather than market or government mechanisms for protecting personal information”. According to some experts, most rules and regulations are formed due to public outcry, which threatens profit maximization and therefore the well-being of the shareholder, and that if there is not outcry there often will be limited regulation.

    Social responsibility means that the government (including public corporations), NGOs, business organizations, and individuals have a responsibility to society to eliminate corruption and irresponsible or unethical behavior that might harm its people or the environment.

    Corporate social responsibility, therefore, refers to a business’s obligation to set policies, make decisions, and follow courses of action that are desirable in terms of the values and objectives of society — its customers, employees, and people in the community.

    Businesses accept social responsibilities when they take their objectives beyond what the business, the economy, and the law require and do what they feel are ethically and socially desirable. For example, such ethical and desirable actions might include raising the safety standards of product and continuously striving to care for the well-being of workers and their customers.

    These ethical and desirable actions that businesses may choose to undertake may be well above the legally required standards.

    Look at the following examples of Namibian businesses fulfilling their social responsibility towards the Namibian society:

    Many companies are increasingly working on cultivating a social responsibility, whatever their actual practices. They are eager to prove that you can save the planet, help the poor and make money at the same time.

    As an entrepreneur how can you behave in an ethically social responsible way towards the following?

    Employees Responsibility

    The main responsibility of any business is towards its employees. It is imperative that a business always looks for ways to support and empower its employees. A happy workforce, a well-motivated and a loyal workforce, leads to improvements in productivity and quality. Your responsibility towards your workers goes beyond just paying them salaries. A socially responsible business tries to ensure that its working environment is free from sexual harassment and discrimination.

    Customers Responsibility

    Customers Social Responsibility

    Even if you are an entrepreneur, you are also a customer at a business where you buy your products. It is, therefore, important that you live and practice the notion, “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”. That means that you should treat your customers in the same way as you expect to be treated as a customer by other businesses. A business’s social responsibility actions towards its customers are rewarded by loyal customers and by their word-of-mouth advertising.

    Government Responsibility

    The acceptance of social responsibility has increased in the government because through policies, the government is forcing businesses to act responsibly. When a firm act in a socially responsible manner, it sets policies, makes decisions and follows courses of action that are desirable in terms of the values and objectives of its different stakeholders. To pay tax is a business’ responsibility towards the Government of a country.

    Society/Community Responsibility

    Social investment looks at what a business is doing for a community. Businesses can engage in social responsibility programs to help the community fight their social problems, such as drug addiction in impoverished areas or providing recreation activities for the youth. These programs normally aim to improve standards of living and create more stable and peaceful communities.

    Corporate Responsibility

    Corporate Social Responsibility
    Corporate Social Responsibility

    Corporate social responsibility or CSR has been defined by Lord Holme and Richard Watts of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development’s publication “Making Good Business Sense” as ” the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as the local community and society at large.” CSR is one of the newest management strategies where companies try to create a positive impact on society while doing business. Evidence suggests that CSR taken on voluntarily by companies will be much more effective than CSR mandated by governments. There is no clear-cut definition of what CSR comprises. Every company has different CSR objectives through the main motive is the same. All companies have a two-point agenda to improve qualitatively (the management of people and processes) and quantitatively (the impact on society). The second is as important as the first and stakeholders of every company are increasingly taking an interest in “the outer circle”-the activities of the company and how these are impacting the environment and society. The other motive behind this is that the companies should not be focused only on the maximization of profits.

    Social responsibility, therefore, is about holding a group, organization or company accountable for the effects it has on the people within the company, people working with the company, the community in which the company operates and those who buy from the company.

    How Does an Individual Become Socially Responsible?

    The Workshop for Civic Initiatives Foundation (WCIF), Bulgaria, describes ISR in its position statement on Social Responsibility as, “The individual social responsibility includes the engagement of each person towards the community where he lives, which can be expressed as an interest towards what’s happening in the community, as well as in the active participation in the solving of some of the local problems. Under community, we understand the village, the small town or the residential complex in the big city, where lives every one of us. Each community lives its own life that undergoes a process of development all the time. And every one of us could take part in that development in different ways, for example by taking part in cleaning of the street on which he lives, by taking part in organization of an event, connected with the history of the town or the village or by rendering social services to children without parents or elderly people. The individual social responsibility also could be expressed in making donations for significant for the society causes – social, cultural or ecological. There are many ways of donating, as for example donating of goods or donating money through a bank account or online”

    Social Responsibility can be “negative,” in that it is a responsibility to refrain from acting (resistance stance) or it can be “positive,” meaning there is a responsibility to act (proactive stance). Being socially responsible not only requires participating in socially responsible activities like recycling, volunteering and mentoring, but to actually make it a lifestyle. Only through a commitment to embrace and embed social responsibility into your personal value and belief system can you truly become socially responsible in all you do.

    What is a Social Entrepreneur?

    Entrepreneur Social Responsibility
    Entrepreneur Social Responsibility

    Social entrepreneurs work to solve critical social problems and address basic unmet needs through entrepreneurship. Their innovations create system change, improving the lives of underserved or marginalized groups.

    Despite the increased attention that social entrepreneurship has received in recent years, there is no precise definition. Various organizations describe social entrepreneurship differently:

    Ashoka defines social entrepreneurs as “individuals with innovative solutions to society’s most pressing social problems” who “find what is not working and solve the problem by changing the system, spreading the solution, and persuading entire societies to move in different directions.”

    The Skoll Foundation calls social entrepreneurs “society’s change agents, creators of innovations that disrupt the status quo and transform our world.”

    In the Stanford Social Innovation Review, Roger L. Martin and Sally Osberg offer a more rigorous definition. A social entrepreneur is “someone who targets an unfortunate but stable equilibrium that causes the neglect, marginalization, or suffering of a segment of humanity; who brings to bear on this situation his or her inspiration, direct action, creativity, courage, and fortitude; and who aims for and ultimately affects the establishment of a new stable equilibrium that secures permanent benefit for the targeted group and society at large.”

  • What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources

    What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources

    Characteristics of Authority; First, Some remembering of what is the Authority? The power or right to give orders, make decisions and enforce obedience. The right to act in a specified way delegated from one person or organization to another. A person or organization having political or administrative power and control. The power to influence others, especially because of one’s commanding manner or one’s recognized knowledge about something.

    Here are explain; What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources.

    A person with extensive or specialized knowledge about a subject; an expert.

    Sources of Authority:

    There are broadly five theories regarding the sources from which authority originates. They are:

    • The formal authority theory.
    • Acceptance of authority theory.
    • The competence theory.
    • Traditional Authority.
    • Charismatic Authority.

    Brief explanations of the above three theories are given below;

    The formal authority theory:

    According to his theory, the authority flows top to bottom through the structure of an organization. In other words, the authority flows from the General Manager to his departmental manager and in turn, from the departmental manager to his superintendent and the like. This is explained in the following diagram.

    Board of Directors → General Manager → Sales Manager → Sales Representatives → Workers

    The Formal Authority Theory is otherwise called Traditional Authority Theory and Top-Down Authority Theory. In the case of a public limited company, the authority is in the hands of shareholders and they delegate their authority to top management, and in turn, a part of this authority is a delegate to the middle management.

    Acceptance of authority theory:

    Chester Bannard gave this theory. According to his theory, the authority flows from the superior to the subordinates whenever there is an acceptance on the part of the subordinates. The subordinates should accept the authority but there is no compulsion made by the superior. If the subordinates do not accept the command of their superior, then the superior cannot say to have any authority over them.

    According to Bannard,

    “An individual will accept the exercise of authority, if the advantages accruing to him from accepting plus the disadvantages accruing to him from not accepting exceed the advantages accruing to him from not accepting plus the disadvantages accruing to him for accepting and conversely, he will not accept the exercise of authority if the latter factors exceed the former.”

    The authority of a superior will be effective only when there is the willingness on the part of the subordinate to accept authority and ineffective when there is a lack of readiness to accept the authority on the part of the subordinate. The subordinate will not analyze every order of the superior to accept it or not. In fact, the subordinate without a second thought accepts certain orders of the superior. If the subordinate without any hesitation accepts the order of the superior, it is knowing as the zone of acceptance.

    A number of factors will determine a zone of acceptance:

    The following acceptance below are;

    • The subordinate believes that rewards will give to him in appreciation of his efforts and skills.
    • Sincere services of subordinate to the organization will reward.
    • A subordinate thinks that he has to accept the authority in a particular situation.
    • The non-acceptance of authority will result in dismissal of the subordinate from an organization.
    • It is also accepting on account of special knowledge that a man may possess.
    • There is no other way available than to accept authority.
    • It is the duty of the subordinate or it may be the policy of the organization to impose the authority.
    • It is the duty of the subordinate or it may be the policy of the organization to impose the authority.
    • People have confidence in the person giving orders.

    Competence theory:

    This type of authority is investing with the persons by virtue of the office hold by them. The personal power of this type of persons is based on the leadership qualities of the person concerned. In an organization, only one person gets a higher position than others in the course of time-based on leadership qualities possessed by him.

    Traditional Authority:

    In a family system, the father exercises traditional authority over members of the family. The traditional authority is generally following in the Indian family system. It is the father who guides the activities of the family and others obey out of respect and traditions.

    In the traditional form of authority, there is no formal law or structured discipline and relationships are governed by personal loyalty and faithfulness rather than compulsions of rules and regulations or duties of the office.

    Charismatic Authority:

    The charismatic authority rests on the personal charisma of a leader who commands the respect of his followers. The personal traits such as good looks, intelligence, integrity, etc., influence others and people follow the dictates of their leaders because of such traits.

    The people follow the leader because they feel that he will help them in achieving their goals. The charismatic leaders are generally good orators and have a hypnotic effect on the followers. The religious leaders and political leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, John F. Keneddy of America come under this category.

    The Charismatic phenomena also extend to film actors, actresses, and war heroes. Film actors and actresses have been successful in raising huge funds for calamities etc. because of their charismatic personalities. Even political parties associate actors and actresses with them to collect crowds for their rallies. People follow some leaders/persons because of their charismatic personalities and not because of any other factor.

    What is Characteristics of Authority with Theories Sources
    What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources! #Pixabay.

    Characteristics of Authority:

    The characteristics of authority are briefly explain below;

    • The basis of getting things done the right to take actions towards completion: Authority gives a right to do things in an organization and affect the behavior of other workers of the organization. It leads to the performance of certain activities for the accomplishment of the defined objectives automatically.
    • Legitimacy-positional authority: Authority implies a legal right (within the organization itself) available to superiors. This type of right arises due to the tradition followed in an organization, custom or accepted standards of authenticity. The right of a manager to affect the behavior of his subordinates is giving to him on the basis of an organizational hierarchy.
    • Decision–making the freedom and right to make choices of action: Decision-making is a Pre-requisite of an authority. The manager can command his subordinates to act or not act. This type of decision takes by the manager regarding the functioning of an office.
    • Implementation as a consequence of the position hold: Implementation influences the personality factors of the manager, who is empowering to use authority. The subordinates or group of subordinates should follow the instructions of the manager regarding the implementation of decisions. The personality factor of one manager may differ from another manager.
  • What is the authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition

    What is the authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition

    Authority is a legal power which is possessed by a person from his superior officers and with the help of which he succeeds in getting the things done by his sub-ordinates. Authority is the key to managerial functions. If the managers do not possess the required authorization, they will not be able to perform their duties properly.

    Here are explain; What is the authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition.

    A manager is in a position to influence his subordinates only by the use of his authority. It is the authorization which enables him to discharge the important functions of planning, coordination, motivation and controlling, etc. in an enterprise.

    If proper authorization is not vesting in him, he cannot perform. These functions in the required manner and he cannot hold responsible for all these functions in the absence of proper authorities. It is only the authorities by virtue of which he dominates his subordinates and gets work done by them.

    The word authority (derived from the Latin word Auctoritas) can use to mean the right to exercise power given by the State (in the form of government, judges, police officers, etc.), or by academic knowledge of an area (someone that can be an authority on a subject).

    What is the authority Introduction Meaning and Definition
    What is authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition #Pixabay.

    The power or right to give orders, make decisions and enforce obedience. The right to act in a specified way delegated from one person or organization to another. A person or organization having political or administrative power and control. The power to influence others, especially because of one’s commanding manner or one’s recognized knowledge about something. A person with extensive or specialized knowledge about a subject; an expert.

    Meaning of authority:

    Authority is the power to make decisions, which guide the action of others. A delegation of authorization contributes to the creation of an organization. No single person is in a position to discharge all the duties in an organization. In order to finish the work in time, there is a need to delegate authorization and follow the principles of division of labor. Delegation permits a person to extend his influence beyond the limits of his own personal time, energy, and knowledge. It is the “right of decision and command.” Theories Sources with Characteristics of Authority.

    Definition of authority:

    The Following definitions below are from different authors;

    According to Henry Fayol,

    “Authority is the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.”

    According to Koontz and O’Donnell,

    “Authority is the power to command others to act or not to act, in a manner deemed by the possessor of the authority to further enterprises or departmental purposes.”

    According to Terry,

    “Authority is the power to exact others to take actions considered appropriate for the achievement of a predetermined objective.”

    According to Barnard,

    “Authority is the character of a communication (order) in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor to or member of the organization as governing the action he contributes. That is, as governing or determining what he does or is not to do so far as the organization is concerned.”

    While concluding the meaning of authority it can say that authorities in the ordinary sense of the term are nothing more than a legal right. It empowers an individual to make decisions. He is giving a right to command and to exercise control over. Those who are responsible for the execution of policies and programs of the enterprise. For decisions take the authorizing person is holding responsible and is made answerable to his superiors and the organization as a whole.

  • What are the Principles of Directing?

    What are the Principles of Directing?

    Learn, Explain, What are the Principles of Directing?

    First, Some know about of Directing; Directing is said to be a process in which the managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of the workers to achieve predetermined goals. Directing is said to be the heart of management process. Planning, organizing, staffing have got no importance if direction function does not take place. Directing initiates action and it is from here actual work starts. The direction is said to be consisting of human factors. 

    What is a Directing? A basic management function that includes building an effective work climate and creating an opportunity for motivation, supervising, scheduling, and disciplining.

    The Meaning of Directing!

    Directing means giving instructions, guiding, counseling, motivating and leading the staff in an organization in doing work to achieve Organisational goals. Directing is a key managerial function performing by the manager along with planning, organizing, staffing and controlling. From top executive to supervisor performs the function of directing and it takes place accordingly wherever superior-subordinate relations exist. Directing is a continuous process initiated at the top level and flows to the bottom through organizational hierarchy.

    In simple words, it can describe as providing guidance to workers is doing work. In a field of management, the direction is said to be all those activities which are designed to encourage the subordinates to work effectively and efficiently. According to Human, “Directing consists of process or technique by which instruction can be issued and operations can carry out as originally planned” Therefore, Directing is the function of guiding, inspiring, overseeing and instructing people towards the accomplishment of organizational goals.

    Now, Here are Principles of Directing:

    The Following are the Principles of Directing:-

    I. Harmony of objectives:

    Individuals have their own objectives. An organization also has its own objectives. The management should coordinate the individual objectives with Organization objectives. Direction should be such that individuals can integrate their objectives with Organization objectives.

    II. Maximum individual contribution:

    Every member’s contribution is necessary for the organization’s development. Hence the management should adopt a technique of direction which enables maximum contribution by the members.

    III. Unity of direction or command:

    An employee should receive orders and instructions only from one superior. If not so, there would be indiscipline and confusion among the subordinates and disorder will ensue.

    IV. Efficiency:

    The subordinates should participate in the decision-making process so that they would have a sense of commitment. This will ensure implementation of decisions and will increase the efficiency of subordinates.

    V. Direct supervision:

    Managers should have the direct relationship with their subordinates. Face to face communication and personal touch with subordinates will ensure successful direction.

    VI. Feedback: 

    The Direction does not end with issuing orders and instructions to subordinates. Suggestions given by subordinates are necessary for the development of management. So the development of feedback system furnishes reliable ideas to the management.

    VII. Effective communication:

    The superior must ensure that plans, policies, and responsibilities are fully understood by the subordinates in the right direction.

    VIII. Appropriateness of direction technique:

    There are three direction techniques available to the management. They are authoritarian, consultative and free rein. But the direction techniques should select according to the situation.

    IX. Effective control:

    The management should monitor the behavior and performance of subordinates to exercise effective control over them. Effective control ensures effective direction. Also, What are Nature and Characteristics of Leadership?

    X. Comprehension:

    The extent of understanding by subordinates is more important than what and how orders are communicating to them. This is very useful in the proper direction of subordinates.

    XI. Follow through:

    A direction is a continuous process. Mere issuing orders or an instruction is not an end itself. The direction is necessary. Hence the management should watch whether the subordinates follow the orders and whether they face difficulties in carrying out the orders or instructions.

    Also, Some extra info on Directing!

    Directing is a process of the top-down approach. It is a vertical process in which orders come from the top for the subordinates to follow. Directing is person-centric. That’s why we often see that one boss is very effective because of his proper directions and the other one is not so effective because of his wrong way of handling things.

    Also, the direction is a management function performing by top-level officials of management. Directing, through the top-down approach, is actually a two-way approach, i.e. orders come top down, and the feedback goes bottom up. The direction is necessary to achieve proper implementation of goals. Direction consists of processes and techniques utilized in issuing instructions and making certain that operations are carried out as originally planned.

    Also, like to read it; The definitions of all the Seven Processes of Scientific Management; Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Motivating, Controlling.

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