Tag: Characteristics

  • What is The Chemical Basis of Life?

    What is The Chemical Basis of Life?

    Understanding of Chemical; A chemical substance is a form of matter that has the constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys.

    Chemical substances are often called ‘pure’ to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are the diamond (carbon), gold, table salt (sodium chloride) and refined sugar (sucrose). However, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical.

    Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, and may change between these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions. Now you will understanding of The Chemical Basis of Life.

    Acids and Bases

    Acids are chemical compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+) when placed in water. For example, when hydrogen chloride is placed in water, it releases its hydrogen ions and the solution becomes hydrochloric acid.

    Bases are chemical compounds that attract hydrogen atoms when they are placed in water. An example of a base is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). When this substance is placed in water, it attracts hydrogen ions, and a basic (or alkaline) solution results as hydroxyl (–OH) ions accumulate.

    Molecule

    Most of the compounds of interest to biologists are composed of units called molecules. A molecule is a precise arrangement of atoms held together by chemical bonds, and a compound is a molecule that contains atoms of more than one element. A molecule may be composed of two or more atoms of the same element, as in oxygen gas (O2), or it may be composed of atoms from different elements. The arrangements of the atoms in a molecule account for the properties of a compound. The molecular weight is equal to the atomic weights of the atoms in the molecule.

    The atoms in molecules may be joined to one another by various linkages called bonds. One example of a bond is an ionic bond, which is formed when the electrons of one atom transfer to a second atom. This creates electrically charged atoms called ions. The electrical charges cause the ions to be attracted to one another, and the attraction forms the ionic bond.

    A second type of linkage is a covalent bond. A covalent bond forms when two atoms share one or more electrons with one another. For example, as shown in Figure 1, oxygen shares its electrons with two hydrogen atoms, and the resulting molecule is water (H2O). Nitrogen shares its electrons with three hydrogen atoms, and the resulting molecule is ammonia (NH3). If one pair of electrons is shared, the bond is a single bond; if two pairs are shared, it is a double bond.

    Formation of a covalent bond in water and ammonia molecules

    Figure 1. Formation of a covalent bond in water and ammonia molecules. In each molecule, the second shell fills with eight electrons.

    Organic Compound: The chemical compounds of living things are known as organic compounds because of their association with organisms and because they are carbon-containing compounds. Organic compounds, which are the compounds associated with life processes, are the subject matter of organic chemistry. Among the numerous types of organic compounds, four major categories are found in all living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

    Carbohydrates

    Almost all organisms use carbohydrates as sources of energy. In addition, some carbohydrates serve as structural materials. Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen and carbon atoms is 2:1.

    Simple carbohydrates, commonly referred to as sugars, can be monosaccharides if they are composed of single molecules, or disaccharides if they are composed of two molecules. The most important monosaccharide is glucose, a carbohydrate with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is the basic form of fuel in living things. In multicellular organisms, it is soluble and is transported by body fluids to all cells, where it is metabolized to release its energy. Glucose is the starting material for cellular respiration, and it is the main product of photosynthesis

    Three important disaccharides are also found in living things: maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Maltose is a combination of two glucose units covalently linked. The table sugar sucrose is formed by linking glucose to another monosaccharide called fructose. (Figure 2 shows that in the synthesis of sucrose, a water molecule is produced. The process is therefore called a dehydration reaction. The reversal of the process is hydrolysis, a process in which the molecule is split and water is added.) Lactose is composed of glucose and galactose units.

    Glucose and fructose molecules combine to form the disaccharide sucrose

    Figure 2. Glucose and fructose molecules combine to form the disaccharide sucrose.

    Complex carbohydrates are known as polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are formed by linking innumerable monosaccharides. Among the most important polysaccharides is starch, which is composed of hundreds or thousands of glucose units linked to one another. Starch serves as a storage form for carbohydrates. Much of the world’s human population satisfies its energy needs with starch in the form of rice, wheat, corn, and potatoes.

    Two other important polysaccharides are glycogen and cellulose. Glycogen is also composed of thousands of glucose units, but the units are bonded in a different pattern than in starch. Glycogen is the form in which glucose is stored in the human liver. Cellulose is used primarily as a structural carbohydrate. It is also composed of glucose units, but the units cannot be released from one another except by a few species of organisms. Wood is composed chiefly of cellulose, as are plant cell walls. Cotton fabric and paper are commercial cellulose products.

    Lipids

    Lipids are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is much higher in lipids than in carbohydrates. Lipids include steroids (the material of which many hormones are composed), waxes, and fats.

    Fat molecules are composed of a glycerol molecule and one, two, or three molecules of fatty acids (see Figure 3). A glycerol molecule contains three hydroxyl (–OH) groups. A fatty acid is a long chain of carbon atoms (from 4 to 24) with a carboxyl (–COOH) group at one end. The fatty acids in a fat may all be alike or they may all be different. They are bound to the glycerol molecule by a process that involves the removal of water.

    Certain fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their molecules. Fats that include these molecules are unsaturated fats. Other fatty acids have no double bonds. Fats that include these fatty acids are saturated fats. In most human health situations, the consumption of unsaturated fats is preferred to the consumption of saturated fats.

    Fats stored in cells usually form clear oil droplets called globules because fats do not dissolve in water. Plants often store fats in their seeds, and animals store fats in large, clear globules in the cells of adipose tissue. The fats in adipose tissue contain much concentrated energy. Hence, they serve as a reserve energy supply to the organism. The enzyme lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol in the human digestive system.

    A fat molecule is constructed by combining a glycerol molecule with three fatty acid molecules

    Figure 3. A fat molecule is constructed by combining a glycerol molecule with three fatty acid molecules. (Two saturated fatty acids and one unsaturated fatty acid are shown for comparison.) The constructed molecule is at the bottom.

    Protein

    Proteins, among the most complex of all organic compounds, are composed of amino acids (see Figure 4), which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. Certain amino acids also have sulfur atoms, phosphorus, or other trace elements such as iron or copper.

    The structure and chemistry of amino acids

    Figure 4. The structure and chemistry of amino acids. When two amino acids are joined in a dipeptide, the –OH of one amino acid is removed, and the –H of the second is removed. So, water is removed. A dipeptide bond (right) forms to join the amino acids together

    Many proteins are immense and extremely complex. However, all proteins are composed of long chains of relatively simple amino acids. There are 20 kinds of amino acids. Each amino acid (see the left illustration in Figure 4) has an amino (–NH2) group, a carboxyl (–COOH) group, and a group of atoms called an –R group (where R stands for radical). The amino acids differ depending on the nature of the –R group, as shown in the middle illustration of Figure 4. Examples of amino acids are alanine, valine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine, and histidine.

    The removal of water molecules links amino acids to form a protein. The process is called dehydration synthesis, and a by-product of the synthesis is water. The links forged between the amino acids are peptide bonds, and small proteins are often called peptides.

    All living things depend on proteins for their existence. Proteins are the major molecules from which living things are constructed. Certain proteins are dissolved or suspended in the watery substance of the cells, while others are incorporated into various structures of the cells. Proteins are also found as supporting and strengthening materials in tissues outside of cells. Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are all composed of proteins.

    One essential function of proteins is as an enzyme. Enzymes catalyze the chemical reactions that take place within cells. They are not used up in a reaction; rather, they remain available to catalyze succeeding reactions.

    Every species manufactures proteins unique to that species. The information for synthesizing the unique proteins is located in the nucleus of the cell. The so-called genetic code specifies the amino acid sequence in proteins. Hence, the genetic code regulates the chemistry taking place within a cell. Proteins also can serve as a reserve source of energy for the cell. When the amino group is removed from an amino acid, the resulting compound is energy-rich.

    Nucleic acids: Like proteins, nucleic acids are very large molecules. The nucleic acids are composed of smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a carbohydrate molecule (sugar), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing molecule that, because of its properties, is a nitrogenous base.

    Living organisms have two important nucleic acids. One type is deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. The other is ribonucleic acid, or RNA. DNA is found primarily in the nucleus of the cell, while RNA is found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm, a semiliquid substance that composes the volume of the cell.

    DNA and RNA differ from one another in their components. DNA contains the carbohydrate deoxyribose, while RNA has ribose. In addition, DNA contains the base thymine, while RNA has uracil.

    Elements and Atoms

    For many centuries, biology was the study of the natural world. Biologists searched for unidentified plants and animals, classified them, and studied their anatomy and how they acted in nature. Then in the 1700s, scientists discovered the chemical and physical bases of living things. They soon realized that the chemical organization of all living things is remarkably similar.

    Elements: All living things on Earth are composed of fundamental building blocks of matter called elements. More than 100 elements are known to exist, including those that are man-made. An element is a substance that cannot be chemically decomposed. Oxygen, iron, calcium, sodium, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen are examples of elements.

    Atoms: Each element is composed of one particular kind of atom. An atom is the smallest part of an element that can enter into combinations with atoms of other elements.

    Atoms consist of positively charged particles called protons surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons. A third type of particle, a neutron, has no electrical charge; it has the same weight as a proton. Protons and neutrons adhere tightly to form the dense, positively charged nucleus of the atom. Electrons spin around the nucleus.

    The electron arrangement in an atom plays an essential role in the chemistry of the atom. Atoms are most stable when their outer shell of electrons has a full quota. The first electron shell has a maximum of two electrons. The second and all other outer shells have a maximum of eight electrons. Atoms tend to gain or lose electrons until their outer shells have a stable arrangement. The gaining or losing of electrons, or the sharing of electrons, contributes to the chemical reactions in which an atom participates.

  • What is Cells Biology?

    What is Cells Biology?

    Cells biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life. Focusing on the cell permits a detailed understanding of the tissues and organisms that cells compose. Some organisms have only one cell, while others are organized into cooperative groups with huge numbers of cells. On the whole, cell biology focuses on the structure and function of a cell, from the most general properties shared by all cells, to the unique, highly intricate functions particular to specialized cells.

    Cells Defined: One of the basic tenets of biology is that all living things are composed of one or more cells. Some organisms consist of a single cell, while others have multiple cells organized into tissues, and tissues organized into organs. In many living things, organs function together as an organ system. However, even in these complex organisms, the basic biology revolves around the activities of the cell.

    Cells Biology

    The starting point for this discipline might be considered the 1830s. Though scientists had been using microscopes for centuries, they were not always sure what they were looking at. Robert Hooke’s initial observation in 1665 of plant-cell walls in slices of cork was followed shortly by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek’s first descriptions of live cells with visible moving parts. In the 1830s two scientists who were colleagues Schleiden, looking at plant cells, and Schwann, looking first at animal cells provided the first clearly stated definition of the cell. Their definition stated that all living creatures, both simple and complex, are made out of one or more cells, and the cell is the structural and functional unit of life a concept that became known as cell theory.

    As microscopes and staining techniques improved over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scientists were able to see more and more internal detail within cells. The microscopes used by van Leeuwenhoek probably magnified specimens a few hundredfold. Today high-powered electron microscopes can magnify specimens more than a million times and can reveal the shapes of organelles at the scale of a micrometer and below. With confocal microscopy a series of images can be combined, allowing researchers to generate detailed three-dimensional representations of cells. These improved imaging techniques have helped us better understand the wonderful complexity of cells and the structures they form.

    There are several main subfields within cell biology. One is the study of cell energy and the biochemical mechanisms that support cell metabolism. As cells are machines unto themselves, the focus on cell energy overlaps with the pursuit of questions of how energy first arose in original primordial cells, billions of years ago. Another subfield of cell biology concerns the genetics of the cell and its tight interconnection with the proteins controlling the release of genetic information from the nucleus to the cell cytoplasm. Yet another subfield focuses on the structure of cell components, known as subcellular compartments. Cutting across many biological disciplines is the additional subfield of cell biology, concerned with cell communication and signaling, concentrating on the messages that cells give to and receive from other cells and themselves. And finally, there is the subfield primarily concerned with the cell cycle, the rotation of phases beginning and ending with cell division and focused on different periods of growth and DNA replication. Many cell biologists dwell at the intersection of two or more of these subfields as our ability to analyze cells in more complex ways expands.

    In line with the continually increasing interdisciplinary study, the recent emergence of systems biology has affected many biological disciplines; it is a methodology that encourages the analysis of living systems within the context of other systems. In the field of cell biology, systems biology has enabled the asking and answering of more complex questions, such as the interrelationships of gene regulatory networks, evolutionary relationships between genomes, and the interactions between intracellular signaling networks. Ultimately, the broader a lens we take on our discoveries in cell biology, the more likely we can decipher the complexities of all living systems, large and small.

    One of the first scientists to observe cells was Englishman Robert Hooke. In the mid-1600s, Hooke examined a thin slice of cork through the newly developed microscope. The microscopic compartments in the cork impressed him and reminded him of rooms in a monastery, known as cells. He therefore referred to the units as cells. Later in that century, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch merchant, made further observations of plant, animal, and microorganism cells. In 1838, German botanist Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are composed of cells. A year later, his colleague, anatomist Theodor Schwann, concluded that all animals are also composed of cells. In 1858, biologist Rudolf Virchow proposed that all living things are made of cells and that all cells arise from preexisting cells. These premises have come down to us as the cell theory.

    Cells

    Movement Through the Plasma Membrane

    In order for the cell cytoplasm to communicate with the external environment, materials must be able to move through the plasma membrane. This movement occurs through several mechanisms.

    Diffusion: One method of movement through the membrane is diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. This movement occurs because the molecules are constantly colliding with one another. The net movement of the molecules is away from the region of high concentration to the region of low concentration.

    Diffusion is a random movement of molecules down the pathway called the concentration gradient. Molecules are said to move down the concentration gradient because they move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. A drop of dye placed in a beaker of water illustrates diffusion as the dye molecules spread out and color the water.

    Osmosis: Another method of movement across the membrane is osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. Osmosis occurs across a membrane that is semipermeable. A semipermeable membrane lets only certain molecules pass through while keeping other molecules out. Osmosis is really a type of diffusion involving only water molecules.

    Facilitated diffusion: A third mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane is facilitated diffusion. Certain proteins in the membrane assist facilitated diffusion by permitting only certain molecules to pass across the membrane. The proteins encourage movement in the direction that diffusion would normally take place, from a region with a higher concentration of molecules to a region of lower concentration.

    Active transport: A fourth method for movement across the membrane is active transport. When active transport is taking place, a protein moves a certain material across the membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. Because this movement is happening against the concentration gradient, the cell must expend energy that is usually derived from a substance called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP (see Chapter 4). An example of active transport occurs in human nerve cells. Here, sodium ions are constantly transported out of the cell into the external fluid bathing the cell, a region of high concentration of sodium. (This transport of sodium sets up the nerve cell for the impulse that will occur within it later.)

    Endocytosis and exocytosis: The final mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane into the cell is endocytosis, a process in which a small patch of plasma membrane encloses particles or tiny volumes of fluid that are at or near the cell surface. The membrane enclosure then sinks into the cytoplasm and pinches off from the membrane, forming a vesicle that moves into the cytoplasm. When the vesicle contains solid particulate matter, the process is called phagocytosis. When the vesicle contains droplets of fluid, the process is called pinocytosis. Along with the other mechanisms for transport across the plasma membrane, endocytosis ensures that the internal cellular environment will be able to exchange materials with the external environment and that the cell will continue to thrive and function. Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis, where internally produced substances are enclosed in vesicles and fuse with the cell membrane, releasing the contents to the exterior of the cell.

    The Structure of Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cells

    During the 1950s, scientists developed the concept that all organisms may be classified as prokaryotes or eukaryotes. The cells of all prokaryotes and eukaryotes possess two basic features: a plasma membrane, also called a cell membrane, and cytoplasm. However, the cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes. For example, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells lack internal cellular bodies (organelles), while eukaryotic cells possess them. Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea. Examples of eukaryotes are protists, fungi, plants, and animals (everything except prokaryotes).

    Plasma membrane: All prokaryote and eukaryote cells have plasma membranes. The plasma membrane (also known as the cell membrane) is the outermost cell surface, which separates the cell from the external environment. The plasma membrane is composed primarily of proteins and lipids, especially phospholipids. The lipids occur in two layers (a bilayer). Proteins embedded in the bilayer appear to float within the lipid, so the membrane is constantly in flux. The membrane is therefore referred to as a fluid mosaic structure. Within the fluid mosaic structure, proteins carry out most of the membrane’s functions.

    The “Movement through the Plasma Membrane” section later in this chapter describes the process by which materials pass between the interior and exterior of a cell.

    Cytoplasm and organelles: All prokaryote and eukaryote cells also have cytoplasm (or cytosol), a semiliquid substance that composes the volume of a cell. Essentially, cytoplasm is the gel-like material enclosed by the plasma membrane.

    Within the cytoplasm of eukaryote cells are a number of membrane-bound bodies called organelles (“little organs”) that provide a specialized function within the cell.

    One example of an organelle is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER is a series of membranes extending throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. In some places, the ER is studded with submicroscopic bodies called ribosomes. This type of ER is called rough ER. In other places, there are no ribosomes. This type of ER is called smooth ER. The rough ER is the site of protein synthesis in a cell because it contains ribosomes; however, the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is responsible for producing lipids. Within the ribosomes, amino acids are actually bound together to form proteins. Cisternae are spaces within the folds of the ER membranes.

    Another organelle is the Golgi apparatus (also called Golgi body). The Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened sacs, usually curled at the edges. In the Golgi body, the cell’s proteins and lipids are processed and packaged before being sent to their final destination. To accomplish this function, the outermost sac of the Golgi body often bulges and breaks away to form drop like vesicles known as secretory vesicles.

    An organelle called the lysosome (see Figure) is derived from the Golgi body. It is a drop like sac of enzymes in the cytoplasm. These enzymes are used for digestion within the cell. They break down particles of food taken into the cell and make the products available for use; they also help break down old cell organelles. Enzymes are also contained in a cytoplasmic body called the peroxisome.

    Diagram of an Animal Cells Biology
    Diagram of an Animal Cells Biology

    Figure The components of an idealized eukaryotic cell. The diagram shows the relative sizes and locations of the cell parts.

    The organelle that releases quantities of energy to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the mitochondrion (the plural form is mitochondria). Because mitochondria are involved in energy release and storage, they are called the “powerhouses of the cells.”

    Green plant cells, for example, contain organelles known as chloroplasts, which function in the process of photosynthesis. Within chloroplasts, energy from the sun is absorbed and transformed into the energy of carbohydrate molecules. Plant cells specialized for photosynthesis contain large numbers of chloroplasts, which are green because the chlorophyll pigments within the chloroplasts are green. Leaves of a plant contain numerous chloroplasts. Plant cells not specializing in photosynthesis (for example, root cells) are not green.

    An organelle found in mature plant cells is a large, fluid-filled central vacuole. The vacuole may occupy more than 75 percent of the plant cell. In the vacuole, the plant stores nutrients, as well as toxic wastes. Pressure within the growing vacuole may cause the cell to swell.

    The cytoskeleton is an interconnected system of fibers, threads, and interwoven molecules that give structure to the cell. The main components of the cytoskeleton are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. All are assembled from subunits of protein.

    The centriole organelle is a cylinder like structure that occurs in pairs. Centrioles function in cell division.

    Many cells have specialized cytoskeletal structures called flagella and cilia. Flagella are long, hair like organelles that extend from the cell, permitting it to move. In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, the flagella rotate like the propeller of a motorboat. In eukaryotic cells, such as certain protozoa and sperm cells, the flagella whip about and propel the cell. Cilia are shorter and more numerous than flagella. In moving cells, the cilia wave in unison and move the cell forward. Paramecium is a well-known ciliated protozoan. Cilia are also found on the surface of several types of cells, such as those that line the human respiratory tract.

    Nucleus: Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus; the word prokaryotic means “primitive nucleus.” Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, have a distinct nucleus.

    The nucleus of eukaryotic cells is composed primarily of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. The DNA is tightly wound around special proteins called histones; the mixture of DNA and histone proteins is called chromatin. The chromatin is folded even further into distinct threads called chromosomes. Functional segments of the chromosomes are referred to as genes. Approximately 21,000 genes are located in the nucleus of all human cells.

    The nuclear envelope, an outer membrane, surrounds the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane, consisting of two lipid layers (similar to the plasma membrane). Pores in the nuclear envelope allow the internal nuclear environment to communicate with the external nuclear environment.

    Within the nucleus are two or more dense organelles referred to as nucleoli (the singular form is nucleolus). In nucleoli, submicroscopic particles known as ribosomes are assembled before their passage out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

    Although prokaryotic cells have no nucleus, they do have DNA. The DNA exists freely in the cytoplasm as a closed loop. It has no protein to support it and no membrane covering it. A bacterium typically has a single looped chromosome.

    Cell Wall

    Many kinds of prokaryotes and eukaryotes contain a structure outside the cell membrane called the cell wall. With only a few exceptions, all prokaryotes have thick, rigid cell walls that give them their shape. Among the eukaryotes, some protists, and all fungi and plants, have cell walls. Cell walls are not identical in these organisms, however. In fungi, the cell wall contains a polysaccharide called chitin. Plant cells, in contrast, have no chitin; their cell walls are composed exclusively of the polysaccharide cellulose.

    Cell walls provide support and help cells resist mechanical pressures, but they are not solid, so materials are able to pass through rather easily. Cell walls are not selective devices, as plasma membranes are.

  • What is Biology?

    What is Biology?

    The study of living organisms, divided into many specialized fields that cover their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution; The plants and animals of a particular area, and the physiology, behavior, and other qualities of a particular organism or class of organisms.

    Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of many branches and sub disciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research, consolidating it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the synthesis and creation of new species. It is also understood today that all the organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable and vital condition known as homeostasis.

    History of Biology:

    The term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, “life” and the suffix -λογία, -logia, “study of.” The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica. It was used again in 1766 in a work entitled Philosophiae Naturalis sive physicae: tomus III, Continens Geologian, biologian, phytologian generalis, by Michael Christoph Hanov, a disciple of Christian Wolff. The first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus’ work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, Grundzüge der Lehre van der Lebenskraft. Karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective (Propädeutik zum Studien der GE Samm ten Heilkunst). The term came into its modern usage with the six-volume treatise Biologie, oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur (1802–22) by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, who announced; The objects of our research will be the different forms and manifestations of life, the conditions and laws under which these phenomena occur, and the causes through which they have been effected. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the name biology [Biologie] or the doctrine of life [Lebenslehre].

    Biology is the study of living things. It encompasses the cellular basis of living things, the energy metabolism that underlies the activities of life, and the genetic basis for inheritance in organisms. Biology also includes the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms and the diversity of life on Earth. It considers the biology of microorganisms, plants, and animals, for example, and it brings together the structural and functional relationships that underlie their day-to-day activities. Biology draws on the sciences of chemistry and physics for its foundations and applies the laws of these disciplines to living things.

    Biology living world scale
    Biology – Living World Scale

    Many sub disciplines and special areas of biology exist, which can be conveniently divided into practical and theoretical categories. Types of practical biology include plant breeding, wildlife management, medical science, and crop production. Theoretical biology encompasses such disciplines as physiology (the study of the function of living things), biochemistry (the study of the chemistry of organisms), taxonomy (classification), ecology (the study of populations and their interactions with each other and their environments), and microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms).

    Their fascination with biology has a long history. Even early humans had to study the animals that they hunted and know where to find the plants that they gathered for food. The invention of agriculture was the first great advance of human civilization. Medicine has been important to us from earliest history as well. The earliest known medical texts are from China (2500 B.C.), Mesopotamia (2112 B.C.), and Egypt (1800 B.C.).

    In classical times, Aristotle is often considered to be the first to practice scientific zoology. He is known to have performed extensive studies of marine life and plants. His student, Theophrastus, wrote one of the West’s earliest known botanical texts in 300 B.C. on the structure, life cycle and uses of plants. The Roman physician Galen used his experience in patching up gladiators for the arena to write texts on surgical procedures in A.D. 158.

    During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci risked censure by participating in human dissection and making detailed anatomical drawings that are still considered among the most beautiful ever made. Invention of the printing press and the ability to reproduce woodcut illustrations meant that information was much easier to record and disseminate. One of the first illustrated biology books is a botanical text written by German botanist Leonhard Fuchs in 1542. Binomial classification was inaugurated by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735, using Latin names to group species according to their characteristics.

    Microscopes opened up new worlds for scientists. In 1665, Robert Hooke, used a simple compound microscope to examine a thin sliver of cork. He observed that the plant tissue consisted of rectangular units that reminded him of the tiny rooms used by monks. He called these units “cells.” In 1676, Anton von Leeuwenhoek published the first drawings of living single celled organisms. Theodore Schwann added the information that animal tissue is also composed of cells in 1839.

    During the Victorian era, and throughout the 19th century, “Natural Science” became something of a mania. Thousands of new species were discovered and described by intrepid adventurers and by backyard botanists and entomologists alike. In 1812, Georges Cuvier described fossils and hypothesized that Earth had undergone “successive bouts of Creation and destruction” over long periods of time. On Nov. 24, 1859, Charles Darwin published “On the Origin of Species,” the text that forever changed the world by showing that all living things are interrelated and that species were not separately created but arise from ancestral forms that are changed and shaped by adaptation to their environment.

    While much of the world’s attention was captured by biology questions at the macroscopic organism level, a quiet monk was investigating how living things pass traits from one generation to the next. Gregor Mendel is now known as the father of genetics although is papers on inheritance, published in 1866, went largely unnoticed at the time. His work was rediscovered in 1900 and further understanding of inheritance rapidly followed.

    The 20th and 21st centuries may be known to future generations as the beginning of the “Biological Revolution.” Beginning with Watson and Crick explaining the structure and function of DNA in 1953, all fields of biology have expanded exponentially and touch every aspect of our lives. Medicine will be changed by development of therapies tailored to a patient’s genetic blueprint or by combining biology and technology with brain-controlled prosthetics. Economies hinge on the proper management of ecological resources, balancing human needs with conservation. We may discover ways to save our oceans while using them to produce enough food to feed the nations. We may “grow” batteries from bacteria or light buildings with bioluminescent fungi. The possibilities are endless; biology is just coming into its own.

    Characteristics of Living Things:

    Defining a living thing is a difficult proposition, as is defining “life”—that property possessed by living things. However, a living thing possesses certain properties that help define what life is.

    Biology Human Lifecycle
    Biology Human Life-cycle

    Complex organization: Living things have a level of complexity and organization not found in lifeless objects. At its most fundamental level, a living thing is composed of one or more cells. These units, generally too small to be seen with the naked eye, are organized into tissues. A tissue is a series of cells that accomplish a shared function. Tissues, in turn, form organs, such as the stomach and kidney. A number of organs working together compose an organ system. An organism is a complex series of various organ systems.

    Metabolism: Living things exhibit a rapid turnover of chemical materials, which is referred to as metabolism. Metabolism involves exchanges of chemical matter with the external environment and extensive transformations of organic matter within the cells of a living organism. Metabolism generally involves the release or use of chemical energy. Nonliving things do not display metabolism.

    Responsiveness: All living things are able to respond to stimuli in the external environment. For example, living things respond to changes in light, heat, sound, and chemical and mechanical contact. To detect stimuli, organisms have means for receiving information, such as eyes, ears, and taste buds.

    To respond effectively to changes in the environment, an organism must coordinate its responses. A system of nerves and a number of chemical regulators called hormones coordinate activities within an organism. The organism responds to the stimuli by means of a number of effectors, such as muscles and glands. Energy is generally used in the process.

    Organisms change their behavior in response to changes in the surrounding environment. For example, an organism may move in response to its environment. Responses such as this occur in definite patterns and make up the behavior of an organism. The behavior is active, not passive; an animal responding to a stimulus is different from a stone rolling down a hill. Living things display responsiveness; nonliving things do not.

    Growth: Growth requires an organism to take in material from the environment and organize the material into its own structures. To accomplish growth, an organism expends some of the energy it acquires during metabolism. An organism has a pattern for accomplishing the building of growth structures.

    During growth, a living organism transforms material that is unlike itself into materials that are like it. A person, for example, digests a meal of meat and vegetables and transforms the chemical material into more of himself or herself. A nonliving organism does not display this characteristic.

    Reproduction: A living thing has the ability to produce copies of itself by the process known as reproduction. These copies are made while the organism is still living. Among plants and simple animals, reproduction is often an extension of the growth process. More complex organisms engage in a type of reproduction called sexual reproduction, in which two parents contribute to the formation of a new individual. During this process, a new combination of traits can be produced.

    Asexual reproduction involves only one parent, and the resulting cells are generally identical to the parent cell. For example, bacteria grow and quickly reach maturity, after which they split into two organisms by a process of asexual reproduction called binary fission.

    Evolution: Living organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment through the process of evolution. During evolution, changes occur in populations, and the organisms in the population become better able to metabolize, respond, and reproduce. They develop abilities to cope with their environment that their ancestors did not have.

    Evolution also results in a greater variety of organisms than existed in previous eras. This proliferation of populations of organisms is unique to living things.

    Ecology: The environment influences the living things that it surrounds. Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their relationships with their environment. Both biotic factors (living things) and abiotic factors (non-living things) can alter the environment. Rain and sunlight are non-living components, for example, that greatly influence the environment. Living things may migrate or hibernate if the environment becomes difficult to live in.

  • What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources

    What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources

    Characteristics of Authority; First, Some remembering of what is the Authority? The power or right to give orders, make decisions and enforce obedience. The right to act in a specified way delegated from one person or organization to another. A person or organization having political or administrative power and control. The power to influence others, especially because of one’s commanding manner or one’s recognized knowledge about something.

    Here are explain; What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources.

    A person with extensive or specialized knowledge about a subject; an expert.

    Sources of Authority:

    There are broadly five theories regarding the sources from which authority originates. They are:

    • The formal authority theory.
    • Acceptance of authority theory.
    • The competence theory.
    • Traditional Authority.
    • Charismatic Authority.

    Brief explanations of the above three theories are given below;

    The formal authority theory:

    According to his theory, the authority flows top to bottom through the structure of an organization. In other words, the authority flows from the General Manager to his departmental manager and in turn, from the departmental manager to his superintendent and the like. This is explained in the following diagram.

    Board of Directors → General Manager → Sales Manager → Sales Representatives → Workers

    The Formal Authority Theory is otherwise called Traditional Authority Theory and Top-Down Authority Theory. In the case of a public limited company, the authority is in the hands of shareholders and they delegate their authority to top management, and in turn, a part of this authority is a delegate to the middle management.

    Acceptance of authority theory:

    Chester Bannard gave this theory. According to his theory, the authority flows from the superior to the subordinates whenever there is an acceptance on the part of the subordinates. The subordinates should accept the authority but there is no compulsion made by the superior. If the subordinates do not accept the command of their superior, then the superior cannot say to have any authority over them.

    According to Bannard,

    “An individual will accept the exercise of authority, if the advantages accruing to him from accepting plus the disadvantages accruing to him from not accepting exceed the advantages accruing to him from not accepting plus the disadvantages accruing to him for accepting and conversely, he will not accept the exercise of authority if the latter factors exceed the former.”

    The authority of a superior will be effective only when there is the willingness on the part of the subordinate to accept authority and ineffective when there is a lack of readiness to accept the authority on the part of the subordinate. The subordinate will not analyze every order of the superior to accept it or not. In fact, the subordinate without a second thought accepts certain orders of the superior. If the subordinate without any hesitation accepts the order of the superior, it is knowing as the zone of acceptance.

    A number of factors will determine a zone of acceptance:

    The following acceptance below are;

    • The subordinate believes that rewards will give to him in appreciation of his efforts and skills.
    • Sincere services of subordinate to the organization will reward.
    • A subordinate thinks that he has to accept the authority in a particular situation.
    • The non-acceptance of authority will result in dismissal of the subordinate from an organization.
    • It is also accepting on account of special knowledge that a man may possess.
    • There is no other way available than to accept authority.
    • It is the duty of the subordinate or it may be the policy of the organization to impose the authority.
    • It is the duty of the subordinate or it may be the policy of the organization to impose the authority.
    • People have confidence in the person giving orders.

    Competence theory:

    This type of authority is investing with the persons by virtue of the office hold by them. The personal power of this type of persons is based on the leadership qualities of the person concerned. In an organization, only one person gets a higher position than others in the course of time-based on leadership qualities possessed by him.

    Traditional Authority:

    In a family system, the father exercises traditional authority over members of the family. The traditional authority is generally following in the Indian family system. It is the father who guides the activities of the family and others obey out of respect and traditions.

    In the traditional form of authority, there is no formal law or structured discipline and relationships are governed by personal loyalty and faithfulness rather than compulsions of rules and regulations or duties of the office.

    Charismatic Authority:

    The charismatic authority rests on the personal charisma of a leader who commands the respect of his followers. The personal traits such as good looks, intelligence, integrity, etc., influence others and people follow the dictates of their leaders because of such traits.

    The people follow the leader because they feel that he will help them in achieving their goals. The charismatic leaders are generally good orators and have a hypnotic effect on the followers. The religious leaders and political leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, John F. Keneddy of America come under this category.

    The Charismatic phenomena also extend to film actors, actresses, and war heroes. Film actors and actresses have been successful in raising huge funds for calamities etc. because of their charismatic personalities. Even political parties associate actors and actresses with them to collect crowds for their rallies. People follow some leaders/persons because of their charismatic personalities and not because of any other factor.

    What is Characteristics of Authority with Theories Sources
    What is Characteristics of Authority? with Theories Sources! #Pixabay.

    Characteristics of Authority:

    The characteristics of authority are briefly explain below;

    • The basis of getting things done the right to take actions towards completion: Authority gives a right to do things in an organization and affect the behavior of other workers of the organization. It leads to the performance of certain activities for the accomplishment of the defined objectives automatically.
    • Legitimacy-positional authority: Authority implies a legal right (within the organization itself) available to superiors. This type of right arises due to the tradition followed in an organization, custom or accepted standards of authenticity. The right of a manager to affect the behavior of his subordinates is giving to him on the basis of an organizational hierarchy.
    • Decision–making the freedom and right to make choices of action: Decision-making is a Pre-requisite of an authority. The manager can command his subordinates to act or not act. This type of decision takes by the manager regarding the functioning of an office.
    • Implementation as a consequence of the position hold: Implementation influences the personality factors of the manager, who is empowering to use authority. The subordinates or group of subordinates should follow the instructions of the manager regarding the implementation of decisions. The personality factor of one manager may differ from another manager.
  • What is the authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition

    What is the authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition

    Authority is a legal power which is possessed by a person from his superior officers and with the help of which he succeeds in getting the things done by his sub-ordinates. Authority is the key to managerial functions. If the managers do not possess the required authorization, they will not be able to perform their duties properly.

    Here are explain; What is the authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition.

    A manager is in a position to influence his subordinates only by the use of his authority. It is the authorization which enables him to discharge the important functions of planning, coordination, motivation and controlling, etc. in an enterprise.

    If proper authorization is not vesting in him, he cannot perform. These functions in the required manner and he cannot hold responsible for all these functions in the absence of proper authorities. It is only the authorities by virtue of which he dominates his subordinates and gets work done by them.

    The word authority (derived from the Latin word Auctoritas) can use to mean the right to exercise power given by the State (in the form of government, judges, police officers, etc.), or by academic knowledge of an area (someone that can be an authority on a subject).

    What is the authority Introduction Meaning and Definition
    What is authority? Introduction, Meaning, and Definition #Pixabay.

    The power or right to give orders, make decisions and enforce obedience. The right to act in a specified way delegated from one person or organization to another. A person or organization having political or administrative power and control. The power to influence others, especially because of one’s commanding manner or one’s recognized knowledge about something. A person with extensive or specialized knowledge about a subject; an expert.

    Meaning of authority:

    Authority is the power to make decisions, which guide the action of others. A delegation of authorization contributes to the creation of an organization. No single person is in a position to discharge all the duties in an organization. In order to finish the work in time, there is a need to delegate authorization and follow the principles of division of labor. Delegation permits a person to extend his influence beyond the limits of his own personal time, energy, and knowledge. It is the “right of decision and command.” Theories Sources with Characteristics of Authority.

    Definition of authority:

    The Following definitions below are from different authors;

    According to Henry Fayol,

    “Authority is the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.”

    According to Koontz and O’Donnell,

    “Authority is the power to command others to act or not to act, in a manner deemed by the possessor of the authority to further enterprises or departmental purposes.”

    According to Terry,

    “Authority is the power to exact others to take actions considered appropriate for the achievement of a predetermined objective.”

    According to Barnard,

    “Authority is the character of a communication (order) in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor to or member of the organization as governing the action he contributes. That is, as governing or determining what he does or is not to do so far as the organization is concerned.”

    While concluding the meaning of authority it can say that authorities in the ordinary sense of the term are nothing more than a legal right. It empowers an individual to make decisions. He is giving a right to command and to exercise control over. Those who are responsible for the execution of policies and programs of the enterprise. For decisions take the authorizing person is holding responsible and is made answerable to his superiors and the organization as a whole.

  • What are the Principles of Directing?

    What are the Principles of Directing?

    Learn, Explain, What are the Principles of Directing?

    First, Some know about of Directing; Directing is said to be a process in which the managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of the workers to achieve predetermined goals. Directing is said to be the heart of management process. Planning, organizing, staffing have got no importance if direction function does not take place. Directing initiates action and it is from here actual work starts. The direction is said to be consisting of human factors. 

    What is a Directing? A basic management function that includes building an effective work climate and creating an opportunity for motivation, supervising, scheduling, and disciplining.

    The Meaning of Directing!

    Directing means giving instructions, guiding, counseling, motivating and leading the staff in an organization in doing work to achieve Organisational goals. Directing is a key managerial function performing by the manager along with planning, organizing, staffing and controlling. From top executive to supervisor performs the function of directing and it takes place accordingly wherever superior-subordinate relations exist. Directing is a continuous process initiated at the top level and flows to the bottom through organizational hierarchy.

    In simple words, it can describe as providing guidance to workers is doing work. In a field of management, the direction is said to be all those activities which are designed to encourage the subordinates to work effectively and efficiently. According to Human, “Directing consists of process or technique by which instruction can be issued and operations can carry out as originally planned” Therefore, Directing is the function of guiding, inspiring, overseeing and instructing people towards the accomplishment of organizational goals.

    Now, Here are Principles of Directing:

    The Following are the Principles of Directing:-

    I. Harmony of objectives:

    Individuals have their own objectives. An organization also has its own objectives. The management should coordinate the individual objectives with Organization objectives. Direction should be such that individuals can integrate their objectives with Organization objectives.

    II. Maximum individual contribution:

    Every member’s contribution is necessary for the organization’s development. Hence the management should adopt a technique of direction which enables maximum contribution by the members.

    III. Unity of direction or command:

    An employee should receive orders and instructions only from one superior. If not so, there would be indiscipline and confusion among the subordinates and disorder will ensue.

    IV. Efficiency:

    The subordinates should participate in the decision-making process so that they would have a sense of commitment. This will ensure implementation of decisions and will increase the efficiency of subordinates.

    V. Direct supervision:

    Managers should have the direct relationship with their subordinates. Face to face communication and personal touch with subordinates will ensure successful direction.

    VI. Feedback: 

    The Direction does not end with issuing orders and instructions to subordinates. Suggestions given by subordinates are necessary for the development of management. So the development of feedback system furnishes reliable ideas to the management.

    VII. Effective communication:

    The superior must ensure that plans, policies, and responsibilities are fully understood by the subordinates in the right direction.

    VIII. Appropriateness of direction technique:

    There are three direction techniques available to the management. They are authoritarian, consultative and free rein. But the direction techniques should select according to the situation.

    IX. Effective control:

    The management should monitor the behavior and performance of subordinates to exercise effective control over them. Effective control ensures effective direction. Also, What are Nature and Characteristics of Leadership?

    X. Comprehension:

    The extent of understanding by subordinates is more important than what and how orders are communicating to them. This is very useful in the proper direction of subordinates.

    XI. Follow through:

    A direction is a continuous process. Mere issuing orders or an instruction is not an end itself. The direction is necessary. Hence the management should watch whether the subordinates follow the orders and whether they face difficulties in carrying out the orders or instructions.

    Also, Some extra info on Directing!

    Directing is a process of the top-down approach. It is a vertical process in which orders come from the top for the subordinates to follow. Directing is person-centric. That’s why we often see that one boss is very effective because of his proper directions and the other one is not so effective because of his wrong way of handling things.

    Also, the direction is a management function performing by top-level officials of management. Directing, through the top-down approach, is actually a two-way approach, i.e. orders come top down, and the feedback goes bottom up. The direction is necessary to achieve proper implementation of goals. Direction consists of processes and techniques utilized in issuing instructions and making certain that operations are carried out as originally planned.

    Also, like to read it; The definitions of all the Seven Processes of Scientific Management; Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Motivating, Controlling.

    What are the Principles of Directing - ilearnlot
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  • Principles of Organization

    Principles of Organization

    First, we will understand What is an Organization? Just same knowledge remembering for more understandable How to Principles of Organization use it or work it in your organization employees.

    “An organized group of people with a particular purpose, such as a business or government department.”

    “The action of organizing something. The quality of being systematic and efficient.”

    “The way in which the elements of a whole are arranged.”

    Here are Principles of Organization

    The principle of definition: Defining and fixing the duties, responsibilities, and authority of each worker. In addition, when a group of persons is working together for a common goal, it becomes necessary to define the relationship between them in clear terms.

    The principle of objective: The activities at all levels of organization structure should be geared to achieve the main objectives of the organization.

    The principle of specialization or division of work: It includes deciding and division of various activities required to achieve the objectives of an organization. Identical activities are grouped under one individual or one department. In order to ensure effective performance, the grouped activities are allotted to specified competent persons, specialized in their fields. Adequate staff members are appointed by them and are appropriately trained.

    The principle of coordination: Coordination must exist among the workers. The delegated authority and responsibility should be coordinated by the chief managerial staff. There must be a separate and responsible person to see whether all the activities are going on to accomplish the objectives of the organization or not.

    The principle of authority: Assignment of duties or allotment of duties to specified persons is followed by the delegation of authority. While delegating authority, responsibility is also fixed. The senior members should delegate the authority to their subordinates on the basis of their ability. The subordinates are motivated through the delegation of authority and they perform the work efficiently with responsibility.

    The principle of responsibility: Each person is responsible for the work completed by him. Authority is delegated from the top level to the bottom level but the responsibility can be delegated to some extent. While delegating the authority, there is no need to delegate the responsibility. So, the responsibility of the junior staff members should be clearly defined.

    The principle of explanation: While allocating duties to persons, the extent of liabilities of the person should be clearly explained to the concerned person. It will enable the person to accept the authority and discharge his duties efficiently.

    The principle of efficiency: Each work can be completed efficiently wherever the environment, as well as the organizational structure, facilitates the completion of work. The work should be completed with minimum members, in less time, with minimum resources and within the right time.

    The principle of uniformity: The organization should distribute the work in such a way that there should be an equal status and equal authority and powers among the same line officers.

    The principle of correspondence: Authority and responsibility should be in parity with each other. If authority alone is delegated without responsibility, it could be misused. Secondly, if responsibility is delegated without authority, it will not work.

    The principle of the unity of command: A subordinate should receive the instructions or directions only from one superior.

    The principle of balance: Sequence of work between various units of the organization should be arranged scientifically.

    The principle of equilibrium: In certain periods, some departments are overloaded and some are under loaded. The overloaded departments should be further divided into subsections. This would facilitate effective control.

    The principle of continuity: There should be reoperation of objectives, readjustment of plants and provision of opportunities for the development of future management.

    The principle of the span of control: It refers to the maximum number of members effectively supervised by a single individual. In the administration area, under one executive, four or five subordinates may work. In the factory level, under one supervisor, twenty or twenty five workers may work. The span of control enables smooth functioning of the organization.

    The principle of leadership facilitation: The organizational set up may be arranged in such a way that the persons with leadership qualities such as honesty, devotion, enthusiasm, and inspiration are appointed in key positions.

    The principle of exception: The junior officers should be disturbed by the seniors only when the work is not done according to the plans laid down. It automatically reduces the work of middle level as well as top level officers. The top level officers will have more time to frame policies and chalk out the plans of the organization.

    The principle of flexibility: The organizational set up must be flexible to adjust to the changing environment of the business.

    The Scalar principle: The line of authority flows from the top level to bottom level. It also establishes the line of communication. Each person has to know as to who is his superior, from whom he has to receive orders, and to whom he is answerable. Each superior must know what authority he has and over which persons.

    The principle of simplicity and homogeneity: The organization structure should be simple. It enables the staff members to maintain equality and homogeneity. It is necessary to understand a person who is working in the organization. If the organization structure is complex, junior officers will not understand the level and the extent of responsibility for a particular activity.

    The principle of unity in direction: The major plan is sub-divided into sub-plans which are taken by groups or departments. All these groups have to cooperate to attain the main objectives by implementing a major plan.

    The principle of joint decisions: In the business organization, there are a number of decisions taken by the officers to run the business. If a complicated problem arises, more than one member examines the problems and takes decisions. Whenever the decision is taken jointly, it gives a benefit for a long period.

    Notes: Here are you have read it Principles of Organization. And, Maybe You will read it; The definitions of all the seven Processes of Scientific Management; Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Motivating, Controlling. You will be reading this post about; What are Functions of Organization, do you read it about Organization.

  • Process of Controlling along with Benefits and Exception of Management

    Process of Controlling along with Benefits and Exception of Management

    Control is any process that guides activity towards some predetermined goals. Process of Controlling along with Benefits and Exception of Management. Thus control can apply in any field such as price control, distribution control, pollution control, etc. However, control as an element of management process can define as the process of analyzing whether actions are taking as plan and taking corrective actions to make these to conform to planning.

    Here are explain; What is the Process of Controlling?

    Controlling as a management function involves the following steps;

    Establishment of standards:

    Standards are the plans or the targets which have to achieve in the course of business function. They can also call the criterions for judging the performance. Standards generally are classifying into two:

    • Measurable or tangible: Those standards which can measure and express are called as measurable standards. They can be in the form of cost, output, expenditure, time, profit, etc.
    • Non-measurable or intangible: There are standards which cannot measure monetarily. For example; performance of a manager, deviation of workers, their attitudes towards a concern. These are called as intangible standards.

    Controlling becomes easy through an establishment of these standards because controlling is exercised based on these standards; you will be reading Process of Controlling.

    Measurement of performance:

    The second major step in controlling is to measure the performance. Finding out deviations becomes easy through measuring the actual performance. Performance levels are sometimes easy to measure and sometimes difficult. Measurement of tangible standards is easy as they can express in units, cost, money terms, etc. Quantitative measurement becomes difficult when the performance of the manager has to measure. The performance of a manager cannot measure in quantities.

    It can measure only by;

    • An attitude of the workers,
    • Their morale to work,
    • The development in the attitudes regarding the physical environment, and
    • Their communication with the superiors.

    It is also sometimes done through various reports like weekly, monthly, quarterly, yearly reports; keep reading Process of Controlling.

    Comparison of actual and standard performance:

    Comparison of actual performance with the planned targets is very important. The deviation can define as the gap between actual performance and the planned targets. The manager has to find out two things here- the extent of deviation and cause of the deviation. An extent of deviation means that the manager has to find out whether the deviation is positive or negative or whether the actual performance is in conformity with the planned performance.

    The managers have to exercise control by exception. He has to find out those deviations which are critical and important for the business. Minor deviations have to ignore. Major deviations like the replacement of machinery, an appointment of workers, quality of raw material, the rate of profits, etc. should look upon consciously.

    Therefore it is said,

    “If a manager controls everything, he ends up controlling nothing.”

    For example, if stationery charges increase by a minor 5 to 10%, it can call as a minor deviation. On the other hand, if monthly production decreases continuously, it’s called the major deviation.

    Once the deviation is identifying, a manager has to think about the various cause which has led to a deviation.

    The causes can be;

    • Erroneous planning,
    • Co-ordination loosens,
    • Implementation of plans is defective, and
    • Supervision and communication are ineffective, etc.

    Taking remedial actions:

    Once the causes and extent of deviation are known, the manager has to detect those errors and take remedial measures for it. There are two alternatives here;

    • Taking corrective measures for deviations which have occurred; and
    • After taking the corrective measures, if the actual performance is not in conformity with plans, the manager can revise the targets. It is here the controlling process comes to an end. Follow-up is an important step because it is only through taking corrective measures, a manager can exercise control.

    An exception of Management and Controlling:

    One of the most important ways of tailoring controls for efficiency and effectiveness is to make sure that they are designed to point out exception. In other words, by concentrating on exceptions from planned performance, controls based on the time-honored exception principles allow managers to detect those places: where their attention’s require and should give.

    This implies the use of management by exception particularly in controlling aspect. Management by exception is a system of identification and communication that signals to the manager when his attention’s need. From this point of view, management by exception can use in other management processes also though its primary focus revolves around controlling.

    Their ingredients:

    Management by exception has six basic ingredients:

    • Measurement assign values to past and present performances. This is necessary because, without a measurement of some kind, it would be impossible to identify an exception.
    • Projection analyses those measurements that are meaningful to organizational, objectives and extends them into future expectations.
    • Selection involves the criteria which management will use to follow progress towards organizational objectives.
    • Observation stage of management by exception involves the measurement of current performance so that managers are aware of the current state of affairs in the organization.
    • Comparison stage makes a comparison of actual and planned performance and identifies the exceptions that require attention and reports the variances to management.
    • Decision-making prescribes the action that must take in order to bring performance back into control or to adjust expectations to reflect changing conditions or to exploit the opportunity.

    Thus it can observe that management by exception is inseparable from other management essentials in many ways. However, the major difference lies in the fact that the superior’s attention’s draw only in the case of exceptional differences between planned performance and actual performance. In other cases, the subordinate manager takes decisions. However, what is-exceptional requires the completion of the whole process.

    Process of Controlling along with Benefits and Exception of Management
    Process of Controlling along with Benefits and Exception of Management. #Pixabay.

    What is Benefits or Management by exception?

    There are various areas where percepts of management by exception are using such as statistical control of product quality, economic order quantities and order points for control of inventories and supplies, break-even points for determining operating, levels, trends in ratios of indirect to direct labour used in apportioning overhead, attitude surveys for gauging employee morale, etc.

    Important Points:

    The use of management by exception is prevalent because of the following factors:

    • Management by exception saves executives’ time because they apply themselves to fewer important problems. Other details of the problems are left to subordinates.
    • It concentrates executives’ efforts on major problems. Instead of spreading managerial attention across all sorts of problems, it is placing selectively where and when they need. Thus it ensures better utilization’ of managerial talents.
    • It facilitates better delegation of authority, increases the span of management and consequently provides better opportunities for self-motivated personnel in the organization. It lessens the frequency of decisions at the higher levels of management, which can concentrate on strategic management rather than engaging themselves in operational management.
    • Management by exception makes better use of knowledge of trends, history; and available business data. It forces managers to review past history and to study related business data because these are the foundations upon which standards are deriving and from which exception’s note.
    • It identifies crises and critical problems and thus avoids uninformed, impulsive pushing of the panic button. They help in the identification of crises because the moment any exceptional deviation occurs, the attention of higher-level manager’s draw. In this way, it also alerts management to opportunities as well as difficulties.
    • Management by exception provides qualitative and quantitative yardsticks for judging situations and people. Thus it helps in performance appraisal by providing more objective criteria and provides better motivation to people in the organization.
  • What are the Features of Controlling Functions?

    What are the Features of Controlling Functions?

    Features of Controlling Functions; Controlling is the last function of the management process which is performed after planning, organizing, staffing and directing. On the other hand, management control means the process to be adopted in order to complete the function of controlling.

    Here are explain; What are the Features of Controlling Functions?

    Following are the characteristics of controlling functions of management

    • Controlling is an end function: A function which comes once the performances are made in-Conformities with plans.
    • It is a pervasive function: which means it is performed by managers at all levels and in all type of concerns.
    • Controlling is forward-looking: because effective control is not possible without past being controlled. Control always look to the future so that follow-up can make whenever to require.
    • Controlling is a dynamic process: since controlling requires taking reviewal methods, changes have to be made wherever possible.
    • It is related to planning: Planning and Controlling are two inseparable functions of management. Without planning, controlling is a meaningless exercise and without controlling, planning is useless. Planning presupposes controlling and controlling succeeds in planning.

    Controlling has got two basic Process of Controlling:

    • It facilitates coordination.
    • It helps with planning.

    Also, know about; What is Controlling?

    Controlling consists of verifying whether everything occurs in conformities with the plans adopted, instructions issued and principles established. Control ensures that there is effective and efficient utilization of organizational resources so as to achieve the planned goals. Controlling measures the deviation of actual performance from the standard performance discovers the causes of such deviations and helps in taking corrective actions.

    What are the Features of Controlling Functions
    What are the Features of Controlling Functions? #Pixabay.

    Lets reading Definitions about Controlling; According to Brech,

    “Controlling is a systematic exercise which is called as a process of checking actual performance against the standards or plans with a view to ensuring adequate progress and also recording such experience as is gained as a contribution to possible future needs.”

    According to Donnell,

    “Just as a navigator continually takes reading to ensure whether he is relative to a planned action, so should a business manager continually take reading to assure himself that his enterprise is on the right course.”

    According to Henry Fayol,

    “Control consists of verifying whether everything occurs in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued, and the principles”.

    Important Features of Controlling:

    Features of controlling could describe in the following analytical manner:

    • The unique feature of controlling, and.
    • Other features of controlling.

    Now, explain each;

    Unique Feature of Controlling:

    The unique feature of control is that it is the “central-tendency point” in the performance of managerial functions i.e. a point where all other managerial functions come together and unite with one another. This is so because, while contemplating corrective action, sometimes it might be necessary to modify plans or effect changes in the organizational setting. At some other times, changes in the staffing procedures and practices might be thought fit by management for remedial reasons.

    While at some junctures, management might plan to effect changes in the directing techniques of leadership, supervision or motivation, to bring performance on the right track. That is to say, that the remedial action comprised in the controlling process might embrace one or more managerial functions. Hence, controlling is designated as the central tendency point, in management theory.

    Other Features of Controlling:

    Some important basic features of controlling could state as under;

    • Controlling makes for a bridge between the standards of performance and their realistic attainment.
    • Planning is the basis of controlling; in as much as, the standards of performance are laid down in plans.
    • Controlling is a pervasive management exercise. All managers, at different levels in the management hierarchy, perform this function, in relation to the work done by subordinates under their charge-ship.
    • As controlling is the last managerial function, it is true to assert that it gives a finishing or final touch to the managerial job, at a particular point of time.
    • Controlling is based on information feedback i.e. on the reports on actual performance done by operators. In specific terms, it could say that information is the guide to controlling; as without information feedback made available to management, analysis of the causes of deviations and undertaking remedial action are not possible.
    • Action is the soul of controlling. In fact, controlling would be a futile activity; if after analyzing deviations – suitable remedial action is not undertaking by management, to bring performance, in conformity with plan standards.
    • Controlling is a continuous managerial exercise. It has to undertake on a regular and continuous basis, throughout the currency of the organizational operational life.

    Significances of Controlling:

    The significances of the controlling function in an organization are as follows:

    • Accomplishing Organisational Goals: Controlling helps in comparing the actual performance with the predetermined standards, finding out deviation and taking corrective measures to ensure that the activities are performing according to plans. Thus, it helps in achieving organizational goals.
    • Judging Accuracy of Standards: An efficient control system helps in judging the accuracy of standards. It further helps in reviewing & revising the standards according to the changes in the organization and the environment.
    • Improving Employee Motivation: Employees know the standards against which their performance will be judged. Systematic evaluation of performance and consequent rewards in the form of increment, bonus, promotion, etc. motivate the employees to put in their best efforts.

    Boundaries of Controlling:

    The defects or boundaries of controlling are as following:

    • Difficulty in Setting Quantitative Standards: It becomes very difficult to compare the actual performance with the predetermined standards if these standards are not expressing in quantitative terms. This is especially so in areas of job satisfaction, human behavior and employee morale.
    • No Control on External Factors: An organization fails to have control of external factors like technological changes, competition, government policies, changes in the taste of consumers, etc.
    • Resistance from Employees: Often employees resist the control systems since they consider them as curbs on their freedom. For example, surveillance through CCTV (closed-circuit television).
  • Nature and Characteristics of Management

    Nature and Characteristics of Management

    What is Management? Define, Management is essential for an organized life and necessary to run all types of management. Also, Good management is the backbone of successful organizations. “Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in formally organized groups.” Managing life means getting things done to achieve life’s objectives and managing an organization means getting things done with and through other people to achieve its objectives. Nature and Characteristics of Management – Goal-oriented, Universal, Integrative Force, Social Process, Multidisciplinary, Continuous Process, Intangible, and Art as well as Science. So, what we discussing is –  The Topic of is Nature and the Characteristics of Management.

    Explain, The Nature and Characteristics of Management.

    The salient features which highlight the nature of management is as follows:

    • Goal-oriented.
    • Universal.
    • Integrative Force.
    • Social Process.
    • Multidisciplinary.
    • Continuous Process.
    • Intangible, and.
    • Art as well as Science.

    Now, Explain each one;

    Management goal-oriented:

    Management is not an end in itself. It is a means to achieve certain goals. Management has no justification to exist without goals. Also, Management goals call group goals or organizational goals. The basic goal of management is to ensure efficiency and economy in the utilization of human, physical and financial resources. The success of management measure by the extent to which one of the established goals achieved. Thus, management is purposeful.

    Management is universal:

    Management is an essential element of every organized activity irrespective of the size or type of activity. Wherever two or more persons engage in working for a common goal, management is necessary. All types of organizations, e.g., family, club, university, government, army, cricket team, or business, require management. Thus, management is a pervasive activity. The fundamental principles of management are applicable in all areas of organized effort. Also, Managers at all levels perform the same basic functions.

    Management is an Integrative Force:

    The essence of management lies in the coordination of individual efforts into a team. Also, Management reconciles the individual goals with organizational goals. As the unifying force, management creates a whole that is more than the sum of individual parts. Also, It integrates human and other resources.

    Management is a Social Process:

    Management is done by people, through people, and for people. It is a social process because it is concerned with interpersonal relations. The human factor is the most important element in management. According to Appley, “Management is the development of people not the direction of things. A good manager is a leader, not a boss. It is the pervasiveness of human element which gives management its special character as a social process”.

    Management is multidisciplinary:

    Management has to deal with human behavior under dynamic conditions. Therefore, it depends upon wide knowledge derived from several disciplines like engineering, sociology, psychology, economics, anthropology, etc. Also, The vast body of knowledge in management draws heavily upon other fields of study.

    Management is a continuous Process:

    Management is a dynamic and on-going process. The cycle of management continues to operate so long as there is an organized activity for the achievement of group goals.

    Management is Intangible:

    Management is an unseen or invisible force. It cannot see but its presence can be felt everywhere in the form of results. However, the managers who perform the functions of management are very much tangible and visible.

    Management is an Art as well as Science:

    It contains a systematic body of theoretical knowledge and it also involves the practical application of such knowledge. Management is also a discipline involving specialized training and an ethical code arising out of its social obligations. Based on these characteristics, management may be defined as a continuous social process involving the coordination of human and material resources to accomplish desired objectives. It involves both the determination and the accomplishment of organizational goals.

    Question & Answers:

    • Write Nature and Characteristics of Management?
    • Write Basic Nature and Characteristics of Management?
    • What is Nature of Management?
    • What is Characteristics of Management?
    • How to Explain the Nature and Characteristics of Management?
    Nature and Characteristics of Management
    Nature and Characteristics of Management. Image credit from #Pixabay.