Tag: About

About: About stand used after verbs of the move and drive, such as travel, talk, speak, and trip. A definition is a statement of the means of a term (a word, word, or different units of symbols). You will gain using having a top or positive individual.

A desirable personal character will improve your potential to attain dreams and entire hard duties. If you have got an effective social person, you may stand depended on and even exist sought after through other human beings. By following the policies of your lifestyle or religion, you will match in and be normal within the group.

You will approximately through having a good person. Your precise personal person will help you obtain tough dreams and duties. A positive social individual permits you to be depended on and well-known with the aid of others. Following the rules of your way of life or faith consequences in being capable of matching in and being commonplace inside the organization.

  • What is the Self-Efficacy? Meaning, Definition, and Source

    What is the Self-Efficacy? Meaning, Definition, and Source

    Self-Efficacy Meaning, Definition, and Source; Self-efficacy, also referred to as personal efficacy, is the extent or strength of one’s belief in one’s own ability to complete tasks and reach goals. Psychologists have studied self-efficacy from several perspectives, noting various paths in the development of self-efficacy; the dynamics of self-efficacy, and lack thereof, in many different settings; interactions between self-efficacy and self-concept; and habits of attribution that contribute to, or detract from, self-efficacy.

    What is Self-Efficacy? also explain their topic Meaning, Definition, and Source.

    Self-efficacy affects every area of human endeavor. By determining the beliefs, a person holds regarding his or her power to affect situations, strongly influences both the power a person actually has to face challenges competently and the choices a person is most likely to make. These effects are particularly apparent, and compelling, concerning behaviors affecting health.

    Meaning and Definition of Self-Efficacy?

    Perceived self-efficacy define as people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves, and behave. Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes. They include cognitive, motivational, affective, and selection processes.

    A strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal well-being in many ways. People with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to master rather than as threats to avoid. Such an efficacious outlook fosters intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in activities. They set themselves challenging goals and maintain a strong commitment to them. They heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure. Also, They quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks.

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    They attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable. They approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them. Such an efficacious outlook produces personal accomplishments, reduces stress, and lowers vulnerability to depression.

    In contrast, people who doubt their capabilities shy away from difficult tasks which they view as personal threats. Also, They have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose to pursue. When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell on their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes rather than concentrate on how to perform successfully. They slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties. They are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks. Because they view insufficient performance as deficient aptitude it does not require much failure for them to lose faith in their capabilities. They fall easy victim to stress and depression.

    Source of Self-Efficacy

    People’s beliefs about their efficacy can develop by four main sources of influence. The most effective way of creating a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences. Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy. Failures undermine it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy firmly establish.

    If people experience only easy successes, they come to expect quick results and easily discourage by failure. A resilient sense of efficacy requires experience in overcoming obstacles through perseverant effort. Some setbacks and difficulties in human pursuits serve a useful purpose in teaching that success usually requires sustained effort. After people become convinced they have what it takes to succeed, they persevere in the face of adversity and quickly rebound from setbacks. By sticking it out through tough times, they emerge stronger from adversity.

    Second way

    The second way of creating and strengthening self-beliefs of efficacy is through the vicarious experiences provided by social models. Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers’ beliefs that they too possess the capabilities to master comparable activities required to succeed. By the same token, observing others’ fail despite high effort lowers observers’ judgments of their own efficacy and undermines their efforts. The impact of modeling on perceived self-efficacy strongly influences by perceived similarity to the models. The greater the assumed similarity the more persuasive are the models’ successes and failures. If people, see the models as very different from themselves their perceived self-efficacy is not much influenced by the models’ behavior and the results it produces.

    Modeling influences do more than provide a social standard against which to judge one’s own capabilities. People seek proficient models who possess the competencies to which they aspire. Through their behavior and expressed ways of thinking, competent models transmit knowledge and teach observers effective skills and strategies for managing environmental demands. Acquisition of better means raises perceived self-efficacy.

    Third way

    Social persuasion is a third way of strengthening people’s beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed. People who persuade verbally that they possess the capabilities to master gives activities are likely to mobilize greater effort and sustain it than if they harbor self-doubts and dwell on personal deficiencies when problems arise. To the extent that persuasive boosts in perceived self-efficacy lead people to try hard enough to succeed, they promote the development of skills and a sense of personal efficacy.

    It is more difficult to instill high beliefs of personal efficacy by social persuasion alone than to undermine it. Unrealistic boosts in efficacy quickly dis-confirm by disappointing results of one’s efforts. But people who have been persuaded that they lack capabilities tend to avoid challenging activities that cultivate potentialities and give up quickly in the face of difficulties. By constricting activities and undermining motivation, disbelief in one’s capabilities creates its own behavioral validation.

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    Successful efficacy builders do more than convey positive appraisals. In addition to raising people’s beliefs in their capabilities, they structure situations for them in ways that bring success and avoid placing people in situations prematurely where they are likely to fail often. They measure success in terms of self-improvement rather than by triumphs over others.

    People also rely partly on their somatic and emotional states in judging their capabilities. They interpret their stress reactions and tension as signs of vulnerability to poor performance. In activities involving strength and stamina, people judge their fatigue, aches, and pains as signs of physical debility. Mood also affects people’s judgments of their personal efficacy. A positive mood enhances perceived self-efficacy, a despondent mood diminishes it. The fourth way of modifying self-beliefs of efficacy is to reduce people’s stress reactions and alter their negative emotional proclivities and is-interpretations of their physical states.

    It is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they perceive and interpret. People who have a high sense of efficacy are likely to view their state of affective arousal as an energizing facilitator of performance, whereas those who are beset by self-doubts regard their arousal as a debilitator. Physiological indicators of efficacy play an especially influential role in health functioning and athletic and other physical activities.

    What is the Self-Efficacy Meaning Definition and Source Image
    What is the Self-Efficacy? Meaning, Definition, and Source; Image from Pixabay.
  • Increase Your Strengthening Self-Efficacy

    Increase Your Strengthening Self-Efficacy

    What knows about strengthening self-efficacy? A range of strategies that can use by teachers to enhance self-efficacy has been identified. Strategies that teachers can use to influence self-efficacy include (a) goals and feedback, (b) rewards, (c) self-instruction for verbalization of strategies, (d) participant modeling, and (e) various combinations of these strategies.

    How to Increase Your Strengthening Self-Efficacy? Here is the article to explain.

    Keep in mind that self-efficacy, skill development, and strategy use go hand in hand; whether it be math problem solving, soccer skills, or expository writing. Students learn strategies that enable them to develop skills resulting in increased self-efficacy strengthening.

    Goals, Feedback, Rewards, and Verbalization

    Because task accomplishment is the most powerful source of self-efficacy information; an important approach is to use strategies that can strengthen task accomplishment. The strategies of goal setting, feedback, rewards, and self-talk or verbalization were used in various combinations to help students categorized as LD or remedial to strengthen self-efficacy.

    Schunk and Cox (1986) investigated the combination of strategy verbalization; and, effort feedback on the performance and self-efficacy of students with LD. While solving subtraction problems, students verbalized or said the task steps aloud to themselves; they were then given feedback that their successes were due to their effort. The combination of verbalization and effort feedback led to problem-solving successes, higher self-efficacy, and subtraction skills. The authors believed that the two strategies verbalization and effort feedback serve different purposes. Verbalization was useful for training students to systematically use the task strategy.

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    Giving students feedback that effort is responsible for success communicated that they are developing skills and that they can continue to perform well with hard work. The importance of feedback for enhancing self-efficacy may sometimes overlook by a teacher. Pajares and Johnson (1994) conducted a study in a language arts course for preservice teachers. The students received feedback from their teacher on attempting and completing writing tasks; but, they did not receive feedback on their specific writing skills.

    The end-of-course assessment revealed that, although the students improved on writing skills; their self-efficacy judgments about their skills did not increase. The authors concluded that when teachers note a growth or decline in skills (in this case, writing); they must give the students feedback about their specific skill development. As emphasized earlier, students will make future judgments not just on their actual skills; but, also on their perception of their competence in using the skill. These perceptions of self-efficacy are more likely to increase with specific teacher feedback.

    Participant Modeling

    Vicarious experience is the second most powerful source of self-efficacy. The most frequent form of vicarious experience for students is seeing a model (another student or teacher) perform a skill they are attempting to learn. Who is a more effective model, a peer or teacher, or a mastery or coping model?

    Peer or Teacher Model?

    Schunk and Hanson (1985) had students, ages 8 to 10, observe either a peer or teacher model solving fractions on a videotape. Children who had observed a peer model had higher self-efficacy and achievement scores on the math assessment than did students who had observed the teacher model. The authors concluded that the increase may have been because the children saw themselves as more similar to the peer model. The use of peer models is especially recommended for enhancement of self-efficacy among low-achieving students who are more doubtful about attaining the level of competence demonstrated by the teacher.

    Mastery or Coping Model?

    Which model do you think will be more effective in strengthening self-efficacy; an expert who demonstrates a high level of expertise or one who is competent, but demonstrates the strategies they used to acquire the skill? Previous research found that observer’s beliefs about competence influence by their perceived similarity incompetence to the model. Models can reflect either mastery or coping behaviors. A mastery model demonstrates a task at a high level of expertise with a high level of confidence. In contrast, a coping model demonstrates the task along with the difficulties students experienced and the strategies (e.g., effort) they used to overcome the difficulties. The effectiveness of coping versus mastery peer models was compared by Schunk et al.

    Types of models

    The two types of models demonstrated strategies as follows:

    1. Peer coping model; Made errors at first and verbalized negative statements that reflected self-efficacy (e.g., “I’m not sure I can do this”). The teacher then gave a prompt (e.g., “What do you do when denominators are the same?”). Next, the coping model made statements about how they overcame failure (e.g., “I need to pay attention to what I’m doing”) and eventually performed at a mastery level.
    2. Peer mastery models; Performed all problems correctly while working at the average rate. Verbalized high self-efficacy and ability (e.g., “I’m good at this.” “That was easy”).

    The findings indicated that the subjects judged themselves as more similar to the peer coping model. Students who observed the peer coping model demonstrated higher self-efficacy for learning, greater post-test self-efficacy, and skill development compared with those who observed a peer mastery model.

    Modeling is a resource that is readily available in the classroom. This is a case of positive social comparisons with others (Schunk, 2001). The important implication for teachers is to use caution in choosing peer models. An alert, the sensitive teacher can identify peer coping models in their classrooms and use them to strengthen the self-efficacy of many students.

    Increase Your Strengthening Self-Efficacy Image
    Increase Your Strengthening Self-Efficacy; Image from Pixabay.
  • What do you understand about International Advertising?

    What do you understand about International Advertising?

    International Advertising essay, generally speaking, is the promotion of goods, services, companies, and ideas, usually in more than one country performed by an identified sponsor. Marketers see advertising as part of an overall promotional strategy. Other components of the promotional mix include publicity, public relations, personal selling, and sales promotion. Advertising is a cogent communication attempt to change or reinforce ones’ prior attitude that is predictive of future behavior. Also learn, What is Major, Key, Dimensions of Organizational Culture? Business Promotion of International Advertising!

    Learn, Understand about International Advertising, Meaning, and Definition.

    It can view as a communication process that takes place in multiple cultures that differ in terms of values, communication styles, and consumption patterns. It is also a business activity involving advertisers and advertising agencies that create ads and buy media in different countries. The sum total of these activities constitutes a worldwide industry that is growing in importance. International advertising is also a major force that both reflects social values and propagates certain values worldwide.

    Global advertising or international advertising consists of collecting, processing, analyzing, and interpreting information.

    There are two main purposes of international advertising research:

    • To assist business executives to make profitable international advertising decisions for their specific products and services, and.
    • To contribute to the general knowledge of international advertising that is potentially useful to a variety of business executives, educators, government policymakers, advertising self-regulatory organizations, and others interested in understanding the process and effects of international advertising.

    More Information!

    International advertising involves recognizing that people all over the world have different needs. Companies like Gillette, Coca-Cola, BIC, and Cadbury Schweppes have brands that are recognizing across the globe. While many of the products that these businesses sell are targeted at a global audience using a consistent marketing mix, it is also necessary to understand the regional differences, hence it is important to understand the importance of international marketing.

    Organizations must accept that differences in values, customs, languages, and currencies will mean that some products will only suit certain countries and that as well as there being global markets e.g. for BIC and Gillette razors, and for Coca-Cola drinks. There are important regional differences for example advertising in China and India needs to focus on local languages. Just as the marketing environment has to assess at home, the overseas potential of markets has to carefully scrutinize. Finding relevant information takes longer because of the unfamiliarity of some locations. The potential market size, degree, and type of competition, price, promotional differences, product differences as well as barriers to trade have to analyze in order to advertise our product effectively in different countries.

    Why Do This?

    Advertising is a paid message used to promote a product, service, or idea to a specific audience. International advertising refers to advertising which is carried out in multiple countries around the world. Effective advertising requires specialized cultural knowledge that considers differences between target audiences in different countries. International advertising is considering not only a communication process but a business activity, an industry, and a reflection of society as a whole.

    The primary goal of advertising is to effectively communicate with the target audience. The communication process involves multiple aspects that are affecting by media, culture, literacy, and language. For example, a multinational company that wishes to place newspaper ads will find that. Their ads will most likely be unsuccessful in countries that have significantly low literacy rates. Additionally, cultural norms and values differ among countries. For example, a television commercial for birth control does not cause concern in many Western countries. While the same ad televised in a conservative Muslim country, such as Saudi Arabia, maybe very controversial.

    How, Where, and Which types?

    International advertising can also consider a business practice by which an advertising firm attempts to influence audiences in other countries about itself, and its products and services. Advertising agencies decide whether to create global or regional campaigns that are capable of building a global image of a product or service. Agencies create advertisements and place them in the appropriate media outlets throughout the world.

    The worldwide industry of international advertising consists of a large network of advertising agencies. The network is made up of small and medium-sized agencies located within one country and large agencies. That have multiple offices in multiple countries throughout the world. This industry network is responsible for communication via the business activity of advertising.

    Finally, international advertising reflects multiple facets of society, including values, morals, lifestyles, and gender roles. The image of a product or service created by advertising plays a part in promoting specific facets of society. Criticism of global campaigns claims that these images are promoting Western cultures and values. International advertising may act as a force that promotes these cultures and values with many products becoming objects of desire for others in the world. Additionally, communication through a regional or global campaign can also promote integration and diversity by establishing common bonds and creating universal symbols. That is able to connect people from different areas of the world.

    Reference

    1. Explaining – //www.mbaknol.com/international-business/international-advertising/
    2. Meaning – //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_advertising
    3. Photo Credit URL – //www.trustedclothes.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/night-square.jpg
  • What is a Dollar?

    What is a Dollar?

    What is a Dollar? Meaning, Definition!

    Dollar (often represented by the dollar sign $) is the name of more than twenty currencies, including (ordered by population) those of the United States, Canada, Australia, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, New Zealand, Liberia, Jamaica, and Namibia. The U.S. dollar is the official currency of East Timor, Ecuador, El Salvador, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Palau, the Caribbean Netherlands, and for banknotes, Panama. Generally, one dollar is divided into one hundred cents. The Currency, a system of money in general use in a particular country. What is a Rupee? Now, you learn What is a Dollar?

    “The history of the dollar. For symbol “$”, see Dollar sign. The Slovenian philosopher, see Mladen Dolar. The municipality in Spain, see Dólar.”

    Exchange Currency in US Dollar 

    One US Dollar ($1) Rated to Others Country:

    1. 1.38 Australian Dollar
    2. 1.00 Bahamian Dollar
    3. 2.00 Barbadian Dollar
    4. 2.01 Belize Dollar
    5. 1.00 Bermudan Dollar
    6. 1.44 Brunei Dollar
    7. 1.34 Canadian Dollar
    8. 0.82 Cayman Islands Dollar
    9. 2.70 East Caribbean Dollar
    10. 2.13 Fijian Dollar
    11. 207.21 Guyanaese Dollar
    12. 7.76 Hong Kong Dollar
    13. 128.80 Jamaican Dollar
    14. 91.00 Liberian Dollar
    15. 13.96 Namibian Dollar
    16. 32.01 New Taiwan Dollar
    17. 1.44 New Zealand Dollar
    18. 1.44 Singapore Dollar
    19. 7.39 Surinamese Dollar
    20. 6.75 Trinidad & Tobago Dollar

    History of Dollar

    On 15 January 1520, the Czech Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins from silver mined locally in Joachimsthal (Czech Jáchymov) and marked on the reverse with the Czech lion. The coins were called Joachim’s thaler, which became shortened in common usage to thaler or taler. The German name “Joachimsthal” literally means “Joachim’s valley” or “Joachim’s dale”. This name found its way into other languages: Czech tolar, Hungarian tallér, Danish and Norwegian (rigs) daler, Swedish (riks)daler, Icelandic dalur, Dutch (rijks)daalder or daler, Ethiopian ታላሪ (“talari”), Italian tallero, Polish talar, Persian dare, as well as – via Dutch – into English as dollar.

    A later Dutch coin depicting also a lion was called the leeuwen daler or leeuwen daalder, literally ‘lion daler’. The Dutch Republic produced these coins to accommodate its booming international trade. The leeuwen daler circulated throughout the Middle East and was imitated in several German and Italian cities. This coin was also popular in the Dutch East Indies and in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York). It was in circulation throughout the Thirteen Colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries and was popularly known as “lion (or lyon) dollar”. The currencies of Romania and Bulgaria are, to this day, ‘lion’ (leu/leva). The modern American-English pronunciation of dollar is still remarkably close to the 17th-century Dutch pronunciation of daler. Some well-worn examples circulating in the Colonies were known as “dog dollars”.

    Spanish pesos – having the same weight and shape – came to be known as Spanish dollars. By the mid-18th century, the lion dollar had been replaced by Spanish dollar, the famous “pieces of eight”, which were distributed widely in the Spanish colonies in the New World and in the Philippines.

    Types of Dollar with Countries Bases

      Antigua and Barbuda East Caribbean dollar XCD    
     Australia and its territories Australian dollar AUD 1966-02-14 Australian pound 1910-1966
    Pound sterling 1825-1910
     Bahamas Bahamian dollar BSD   Bahamian pound
     Barbados Barbadian dollar BBD    
     Belize Belize dollar BZD/USD 1973 British Honduran Dollar
     Bermuda Bermuda dollar BMD    
     Brunei Brunei dollar
    (Alongside the Singapore dollar)    		 BND
    (SGD)    		    
     Canada Canadian dollar CAD 1858 Canadian pound 1841-1858
    Spanish dollar pre-1841
    Newfoundland dollar, pre-1949 in the Dominion of Newfoundland
     Cayman Islands Cayman Islands dollar KYD    
     Dominica East Caribbean dollar XCD    
     East Timor United States dollar USD    
     Ecuador United States dollar USD 2001 Ecuadorian sucre
     El Salvador United States dollar USD 2001-01-01 Salvadoran colón
     Fiji Fijian dollar FJD    
     Grenada East Caribbean dollar XCD    
     Guyana Guyanese dollar GYD    
     Hong Kong Hong Kong dollar HKD 1863 Rupee, Real (Spanish/Colonial Spain: Mexican), Chinese cash
     Jamaica Jamaican dollar JMD 1969 Jamaican pound
     Kiribati Kiribati dollar along with the Australian dollar N/A / AUD    
     Liberia Liberian dollar LRD    
     Marshall Islands United States dollar USD    
     Federated States of Micronesia United States dollar USD    
     Namibia Namibian dollar along with the South African rand NAD 1993 South African rand
     Nauru Australian dollar AUD    
     New Zealand and its territories New Zealand dollar NZD 1967 New Zealand pound
     Palau United States dollar USD    
     Saint Kitts and Nevis East Caribbean dollar XCD    
     Saint Lucia East Caribbean dollar XCD    
     Saint Vincent and the Grenadines East Caribbean dollar XCD    
     Singapore Singapore dollar SGD    
     Solomon Islands Solomon Islands dollar SBD    
     Suriname Surinamese dollar SRD 2004 Surinamese guilder
     Taiwan New Taiwan dollar TWD 1949  
     Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago dollar TTD    
     Tuvalu Tuvaluan dollar along with the Australian dollar TVD / AUD    
     United States and its territories United States dollar USD 1792 Spanish dollar
    colonial script
     Zimbabwe United States dollar USD   Zimbabwean dollar

    Note: All Countries Dollar exchange rate, 21 December 2016.

    What is a Dollar Meaning Definition - ilearnlot

  • What is a Rupee?

    What is a Rupee?

    What is a Rupee? Meaning, Definition!

    The rupee is the common name for the currencies of India, Indonesia, Maldives, Mauritius, Nepal, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and formerly those of Afghanistan, Burma and British East Africa, German East Africa and the Trucial States. Basically, the rupee is monetary unit of India, equal to 100 paise in India, Pakistan, and Nepal. As Wall as equal to 100 cents in Sri Lanka, Mauritius, and Seychelles. What is a Rupee? a system of money in general use in a particular country.

    In the Maldives, the unit of currency is known as the rufiyah, which is a cognate of the Sanskrit rupya. The Indian rupees (₹) and Pakistani rupees (₨) are subdivided into one hundred paise (singular paisa) or pice. The Mauritian and Sri Lankan rupees subdivide into 100 cents. The Nepalese rupee subdivides into one hundred paisas (both singular and plural) or four sukas or two mohors. Definition of Organization, What is Glocalization? Meaning, Definition!

    Rupee Exchange Currency to per US dollar

    1. 67.84 Indian Rupee
    2. 35.95 Mauritian Rupee
    3. 108.52 Nepalese Rupee
    4. 104.85 Pakistani Rupee
    5. 13.27 Seychellois Rupee
    6. 149.76 Sri Lankan Rupee
    7. 13440.00 Indonesian Rupiah
    8. 15.36 Maldivian Rufiyaa

    “All currency Exchanging to per US dollar on a date of 24 December 2016, rupee use in the country of India, Mauritius, Nepal, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia use to Rupiah, the Maldives using Rufiyaa.”

    History of Rupee

    The history of the rupee traces back to Ancient India circa 3rd century BC. Ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Lydian staters, several other Middle Eastern coinages, and the Chinese wen. The term is from rūpya, a Sanskrit term for the silver coin, from Sanskrit rūpá, beautiful form.

    The Indian rupee was come first introduce issued and termed as rupiya, the silver coin, by Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545), continued by the Mughal rulers. The Kabuli rupee and the Kandahari rupee were using as currency in Afghanistan prior to 1891 when they were standardized as the Afghan rupee. The Afghan rupee, which was subdivided into 60 paisas, was replaced by the Afghan afghani in 1925. After the middle of the 20th century, Tibet’s official currency was also known as the Tibetan rupee.

    The Indian rupee was the official currency of Dubai and Qatar until 1959 when India created a new Gulf rupee (also known as the “external rupee”) to hinder the smuggling of gold. The Gulf rupee was legal tender until 1966 when India significantly devalued the Indian rupee and a new Qatar-Dubai riyal was established to provide economic stability.

    Types of Rupee used by Countries

     

     India Indian rupee INR ₹ 67.73
     Indonesia Indonesian rupiah     IDR Rp 13,024
     Maldives Maldivian rufiyaa MVR Rf 12.80
     Mauritius Mauritian rupee MUR Rs 35.65
       Nepal Nepalese rupee NPR रू 106.76
     Pakistan Pakistani rupee PKR Rs 104.67
     Seychelles    Seychellois rupee SCR SR 13.20
     Sri Lanka Sri Lankan rupee LKR රු 147.04

    What is a Rupee Meaning Definition - ilearnlot

  • Difference Between Management and Leadership

    Difference Between Management and Leadership

    Leadership and Management Difference; The words “leader” and “manager” are among the most commonly used words in business and are often used interchangeably. But have you ever wonder what the terms mean? What is the Difference Between Management and Leadership? Leadership is working solely, lead the Business own, but Management runs through the entire department.

    What Do they Do? Learn about the Difference Between Management and Leadership!

    The following topic define what difference them below are;

    First, What is Management? Management (or managing) is the administration of an organization. Whether it is a business, a not-for-profit organization, or a government body. Management includes the activities of setting the strategy of an organization and coordinating the efforts of its employees (or of volunteers) to accomplish.

    It’s objectives through the application of available resources, such as financial, natural, technological, and human resources. The term “management” may also refer to those people who manage an organization.

    Second, What is Leadership? Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to “lead” or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations.

    Specialist literature debates various viewpoints, contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) US vs. European approaches. US academic environments define leadership as “a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task”.

    Leadership seen from a European and non-academic perspective encompasses a view of a leader. Who can move not only by communitarian goals but also by the search for personal power? Leadership can derive from a combination of several factors.

    What Do Managers Do?

    A manager is a member of an organization with the responsibility of carrying out the four important functions of management: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. But are all managers leaders?

    Most managers also tend to be leaders, but only IF they also adequately carry out the leadership responsibilities of management. Which include communication, motivation, providing inspiration and guidance, and encouraging employees to rise to a higher level of productivity.

    Unfortunately, not all managers are leaders. Some managers have poor leadership qualities, and employees follow orders. Their managers because they are obliged to do so not necessarily because they are influenced or inspire the leader.

    Managerial duties are usually a formal part of a job description; subordinates follow as a result of the professional title or designation. A manager’s chief focus is to meet organizational goals and objectives; they typically do not take much else into consideration. Managers are held responsible for their actions, as well as for the actions of their subordinates. With the title comes the authority and the privilege to promote, hire, fire, discipline, or reward employees based on their performance and behavior.

    What Do Leaders Do?

    The primary difference between management and leadership is that leaders don’t necessarily hold or occupy a management position. Simply put, a leader doesn’t have to be an authority figure in the organization; a leader can be anyone.

    Unlike managers, leaders are followed because of their personality, behavior, and beliefs. A Leader personally invests in tasks and projects and demonstrates a high level of passion for work. Leaders take a great deal of interest in the success of their followers, enabling them to reach their goals to satisfaction these are not necessarily organizational goals.

    There isn’t always tangible or formal power that a leader possesses over his followers. Temporary power is the award to a leader and can conditional base on the ability of the leader to continually inspire and motivate their followers.

    Subordinates of a manager are required to obey orders while following is optional when it comes to leadership. Leadership works on inspiration and trust among employees; those who do wish to follow their leader may stop at any time. Generally, leaders are people who challenge the status quo. Leadership is change-savvy, visionary, agile, creative, and adaptive.

    The important differences between them:

    Being a manager and a leader at the same time is a viable concept. But remember, just because someone is a phenomenal leader it does not necessarily guarantee that the person will an exceptional manager as well, and vice versa. So, what are the standout differences between the two roles?

    A leader invents or innovates while a manager organizes!

    The leader of the team comes up with new ideas and kickstarts the organization’s shift or transition to a forward-thinking phase. A leader always has his or her eyes set on the horizon, developing new techniques and strategies for the organization. A leader has immense knowledge of all the current trends, advancements, and skillsets—and has the clarity of purpose and vision. By contrast, a manager is someone who generally only maintains what is already established. A manager needs to watch the bottom line while controlling employees and workflow in the organization and preventing any kind of chaos.

    A manager relies on control whereas a leader inspires trust!

    A leader is a person who pushes employees to do their best and knows how to set an appropriate pace and tempo for the rest of the group. Managers, on the other hand, are required by their job description to establish control over employees which, in turn, helps them develop their assets to bring out their best. Thus, managers have to understand their subordinates well to do their job effectively.

    A leader asks the questions “what” and “why whereas a manager leans more towards the questions “how” and “when”!

    To be able to do justice to their role as a leader. Some may question and challenge authority to modify or even reverse decisions. That may not have the team’s best interests in mind.

    Good leadership requires a great deal of good judgment. Especially when it comes to the ability to stand up to senior management over a point of concern or if there is an aspect in need of improvement. If a company goes through a rough patch, a leader will be the one who will stand up and ask the question: “What did we learn from this?”

    Managers, however, are not required to assess and analyze failures. Their job description emphasizes asking the questions “how” and “when,” which usually helps them make sure that plans are properly executed. They tend to accept the status quo exactly the way it is and do not attempt a change.

    Understanding the Differences between Management and Leadership: 

    A successful business owner needs to be both a strong leader and manager to get. Their team on board to follow them towards their vision of success. Leadership is about getting people to understand and believe in your vision and to work with you to achieve your goals. While managing is more about administering and making sure the day-to-day things are happening as they should.

    While Many Traits Make Up a Strong Leader, Some of the key characteristics are:
    • Honesty & Integrity: are crucial to getting your people to believe you and buy into the journey you are taking them on
    • Vision: know where you are, where you want to go, and enroll your team in charting a path for the future.
    • Inspiration: inspire your team to be all they can by making sure they understand their role in the bigger picture.
    • Ability to Challenge: do not be afraid to challenge the status quo, do things differently, and have the courage to think outside the box.
    • Communication Skills: keep your team informs of the journey, where you are, where you are heading, and share any roadblocks you may encounter along the way.

    Some of the Common Traits Shared by Strong Managers are:

    • Being Able to Execute a Vision: take a strategic vision and break it down into a roadmap to follow the team.
    • Ability to Direct: day-to-day work efforts, review resources need, and anticipate needs along the way.
    • Process Management: establish work rules, processes, standards, and operating procedures.
    • People Focused: look after your people, their needs, listen to them, and involve them.

    For you to engage your staff in providing the best service to your guests, clients, or partners. You must enroll them in your vision and align their perceptions and behaviors. You need to get them excited about where you are taking them while making sure they know what’s in it for them. With smaller organizations, the challenge lies in making sure you are both leading your team as well as managing your day to day operation. Those who can do both will create a competitive advantage. Are you both a leader and a manager; what would your staff say if you were to ask them?

    Learn about the Difference Between Management and Leadership - ilearnlot
    Learn about the Difference Between Management and Leadership!

  • Definition of Scientific Management

    Definition of Scientific Management

    What is Scientific Management? Meaning and Definition!

    Scientific management is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows. Its main objective is improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes and to management. Scientific management is sometimes known as Taylorism after its founder, Frederick Winslow Taylor.

    Taylor began the theory’s development in the United States during the 1880s and ’90s within manufacturing industries, especially steel. Its peak of influence came in the 1910s; In 1913 Vladimir Lenin wrote that the “most widely discussed topic today in Europe, and to some extent in Russia, is the ‘system’ of the American engineer, Frederick Taylor”; Lenin decried it initially as a “‘scientific’ system of sweating” more work from laborers. Taylor died in 1915 and by the 1920s, scientific management was still influential but had entered into competition and syncretism with opposing or complementary ideas.

    Although scientific management as a distinct theory or school of thought was obsolete by the 1930s, most of its themes are still important parts of industrial engineering and management today. These include analysis; synthesis; logic; rationality; empiricism; work ethic; efficiency and elimination of waste; standardization of best practices; disdain for tradition preserved merely for its own sake or to protect the social status of particular workers with particular skill sets; the transformation of craft production into mass production; and knowledge transfer between workers and from workers into tools, processes, and documentation.

    Define of Scientific Management by Taylor

    Fredrick Winslow Taylor ( March 20, 1856 – March 21, 1915). Commonly known as “Father of Scientific Management” started his career as an operator and rose to the position of chief engineer. He conducts various experiments during this process which forms the basis of scientific management. It implies the application of scientific principles for studying & identifying management problems.

    According to Taylor, “Scientific Management is an art of knowing exactly what you want your men to do and seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way”. In Taylor’s view, if a work is analyzed scientifically it will be possible to find one best way to do it.

    Hence scientific management is a thoughtful, organize, dual approach towards. The job of management against hit or miss or Rule of Thumb. Do you Know? How Do You Know Your Company Wants Help From The Outside? and What is Market-Based Management?

    According to Drucker, “The cost of scientific management is the organized study of work, the analysis of work into simplest element & systematic management of worker’s performance of each element”.

    Know More of Knowledge about Scientific Management

    Scientific management was the first big management idea to reach a mass audience. It swept through corporate America in the early years of the 20th century, and much management thinking since has been either a reaction to it or a development of it.

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    The idea was first to propound by Frederick Winslow Taylor, partly in response to a motivational problem. Which at the time was calling “soldiering”—the attempt among workers to do the least amount of work in the longest amount of time. To counter this, Taylor proposed that managers should scientifically measure productivity and set high targets for workers to achieve. This was in contrast to the alternative method, known as initiative and incentive. In which workers were rewarded with higher wages or promotion. Taylor described this method as “poisonous”.

    Scientific management required managers to walk around with stopwatches and notepads carrying out time-and-motion studies on workers in different departments. It led to the piece-rate system in which workers were paid for their output, not for their time. Taylor’s first publication, which came out in 1895, was called “A Piece-Rate System”.

    He believes that “the principal object of management should to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity of each employee”. The interests of management, workers, and owners were, he maintains, intertwine. He wants to remove “all possible brain work” from the shop floor, handing all action, as far as possible, over to machines. “In the past, the man has been first; in the future, the machine must be first,” he was fond of saying. He ignites a debate about man versus machine that continued far into the 20th century. Also, read it Processes of Scientific Management. 

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    Reference

    1. Meaning of Scientific Management – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_management
    2. Definition of Scientific Management – http://www.managementstudyguide.com/scientificmanagement.htm
    3. Knowledge of Scientific Management – http://www.economist.com/node/13092819
  • What is a Planning?

    What is a Planning?

    What is a Planning? Meaning and Definition!

    “The control of urban development by a local government authority, from which a license must be obtained to build a new property or change an existing one.” Planning (also called forethought) is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve the desired goal. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such as psychological aspects that require conceptual skills. There are even a couple of tests to measure someone’s capability of planning well. As such, planning is a fundamental property of the intelligent behavior.

    Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action to following. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action.

    It is rightly said, “Well the plan is half done”. Therefore planning takes into consideration available & prospective human and physical resources of the organization so as to get effective co-ordination, contribution & perfect adjustment. It is the basic management function which includes the formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve an optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources.

    Definition of Planning

    According to Urwick, “Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in an orderly way, to think before acting and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses”. Planning is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals.

    According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things to occur which would not otherwise occur”.

    Processes of Scientific Management Planning: Planning is the primary function of management. Nothing can be performed without planning. Writing a book starts with a plan. The plan refers to deciding in advance what will do in near future. In the business world, the organization has to achieve the objectives and goals.

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    In order to achieve these objectives and goals the organization plans:

    • What is to be done?
    • When is it to be done?
    • How is it to be done?
    • By whom it is to be done?

    The plan is a constructive reviewing of future needs so that present actions can be adjusted in view of the established goal. It is a deliberate conscious research used to formulate the design and orderly sequence of actions through which it is expected to reach objectives. Planning should take place before doing; most individual or group efforts are made by determining before any operative action takes place: What shall be done, where, how and who shall do it.

    Planning involves determining the objectives and goals that an organization aspires to achieve within a given time period, developing alternatives, and selecting the best course of action among the available alternatives to accomplish the set objectives. This plan is a forward-looking function which involves future forecasting. The future forecasting is done on the basis of past analysis related to present.

    By anticipating the future destination of an organization, provides direction and guidelines to managers to perform different organizational activities. In the planning phase, managers determine in advance where to go, how to go, what is to be done and by whom it is to do. In addition, they attempt to forecast the problems that may arise in the future and the ways to deal with them.

    The planning function involves the following activities:

    • Visualizing the future position of the organization.
    • Determining objectives.
    • Selecting the best future course of action.
    • Formulating policies, programs, budgets, schedules.
    • Establishing procedures, and standards of performance.
    • Forecasting future problems, and developing means to cope up with them.
    • Comparing the past activities of the organization with present activities.

    An efficient plan function helps the organization to achieve its organizational objectives effectively. Being a managerial function, the plan should intend to create maximum utility out of minimum possible resources. Do you know about, Processes of Scientific Management?

    Example of the process: To give you an example, Production Plan and control function is very crucial function, which essentially consists of planning production in a manufacturing organization before actual production activities start and exercising control activities in order to ensure that plan production is realized in terms of quality, quantity, delivery schedule, and cost of production. This function includes routing, estimating, loading and scheduling, dispatching, expediting, inspection, evaluating and cost control.

    Note: After Plan, you need organization and also needed Entrepreneur for your company “Why Become an Entrepreneur?”, also, read What Is Entrepreneurship?. You will come to know the definitions of all the seven Processes of Scientific Management; Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Motivating, Controlling. What is the Concept of Career-Planning?

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  • What is Customer Relationship Management? with Video Clip

    What is Customer Relationship Management? with Video Clip

    What is Customer Relationship Management (CRM)? It is an approach to managing a company’s interaction with current and potential customers. It uses data analysis about customers’ history with a company and to improve business relationships with customers. Specifically focusing on customer retention and ultimately driving sales growth. Positive Relationships with Individual and Organization Outside. So, what is the question going to learn; What is CRM? with Video Clip.

    Here are explain; What is Customer Relationship Management (CRM)? with a video clip for a better Understand.

    One important aspect of the CRM approach is the systems of CRM that compile data from a range of different communication channels. Including a company’s website, telephone, email, live chat, marketing materials, and more recently, social media. Through the CRM approach and the systems used to facilitate it, businesses learn more about their target audiences. How to best cater to their needs. However, adopting the CRM approach may also occasionally lead to favoritism within an audience of consumers. Resulting in dissatisfaction among customers and defeating the purpose of CRM.

    Customer relationship management (CRM) is a term that refers to practices, strategies, and technologies. That companies use to manage and analyze customer interactions and data throughout the customer life-cycle. To improve business relationships with customers, assisting in customer retention, and driving sales growth. Also, CRM systems are designed to compile information on customers across different channels or points of contact between the customer and the company. Which could include the company’s website, telephone, live chat, direct mail, marketing materials, and social media? CRM systems can also give customer-facing staff detailed information on customers’ personal information, purchase history, buying preferences, and concerns.

    Objectives of CRM

    Customer Relationship Management (CRM) as the name suggests the primary focal point is placed on the customer. The key objective is to increase customer value over time by increasing customer loyalty. If a company develops better customer relationships, it also improves business processes as well as its profits. In general, CRM is a more efficient automated method use to connect and improve. All areas of the business to focus on creating strong customer relationships. Also, All forces are coupled together to save, improve, and acquire greater business to customer relationships. The most common areas of business that are positively affected include marketing, sales, and customer service strategies.

    Customer Relationship Management (CRM) helps create time efficiency and savings on both sides of the business spectrum. Through correct implementation and use of CRM solutions, companies gain a better understanding of their strongest and weakest areas and how they can improve upon these. Therefore, customers gain better products and services from their businesses of choice. To achieve better insight into CRM, it is essential to consider all of its components.

    Strategy and Solutions of CRM

    Customer relationship management (CRM) is a business strategy that spans your entire organization from the front office to the back-office. It is a commitment you make to put customers at the heart of your enterprise. Also, The right CRM strategy and solutions can help you securely, reliably, and consistently:

    • Delight your customers every time they interact with your business by empowering them with any time, anywhere, and any channel access to accurate information and more personalized service.
    • Reach more customers more effectively, increase customer retention and boost customer loyalty by leveraging opportunities to up-sell and cross-sell and driving repeat business at a lower cost.
    • Drive improvements in business performance by providing your customers with the ability to access more information through self-service and assisted-service capabilities when it is convenient for them.
    • Enable virtualization in your enterprise as more of your people and resources extend beyond your offices and around the world.
    • Balance sophisticated functionality with rapid implementation and effective support for a faster return on your CRM investment.

    Present Day of CRM:

    Today’s customers face a growing range of choices in the products and services they can buy. Also, They base their choices on their perception of quality, value, and service. Each consumer has specific behavior. But buying habits are sometimes difficult to understand. Therefore companies always want to gain some insight into consumer behavior and habits to better control this behavior. Having an impact on consumer behavior means being able to change consumer’s perception of the product or service, to establish a relation between the company and its clients.

    Another concept that is closely related to CRM is Customer Relationship Marketing. Which is a practice that encompasses all marketing activities direct toward establishing, developing, and maintaining successful customer relationships? Also, The focus of relationship marketing is on developing long-term relationships and improving corporate performance through customer loyalty and customer retention.

    What is ‘Customer Relationship Management – CRM’:

    Customer relationship management (CRM) refers to the principles, practices, and guidelines that an organization follows when interacting with its customers. From the organization’s point of view, this entire relationship encompasses direct interactions with customers, such as sales and service-related processes, and forecasting and analysis of customer trends and behaviors. Ultimately, CRM serves to enhance the customer’s overall experience.

    With the growth of the Internet and related technologies. Customers are concerned about the privacy and safety of their personal information. Therefore, businesses need to ensure the storage and analysis of their customer data have the highest levels of protection against cybercriminals, identity theft, and other breaches of security.

    BREAKING DOWN ‘Customer Relationship Management – CRM’:

    Elements of CRM range from a company’s website and emails to mass mailings and telephone calls. Also, Social media represents one-way companies adapt to trends that benefit their bottom line. The entire point of CRM is to build positive experiences with customers to keep them coming back so a company creates a growing base of returning customers.

    Software:

    Special CRM software aggregates customer information in one place to give businesses easy access to data. Such as contact data, purchase history, and any previous contact with customer service representatives. This data helps employees interact with clients, anticipate customer needs. Recognize customer updates and track performance goals when it comes to sales. Also, CRM software’s main purpose is to make interactions more efficient and productive. Automated procedures within a CRM module include sending a sales team marketing materials based on a customer’s selection of a product or service. Programs also assess a customer’s needs to reduce the time it takes to fulfill a request.

    Cloud Solutions:

    Cloud-based systems provide real-time data to sales agents at the office and in the field as long as a computer, smartphone, laptop or tablet connects to the Internet. The convenience of this type of system has a trade-off. If the company goes out of business or faces acquisition, access to customer information may become compromised. A business might have compatibility issues when and if it migrates to a different vendor for this kind of software. Typically, cloud-based CRM programs cost more than in-house programs. Every Leader has to need Social Media Skills with Qualities.

    Management:

    All of the computer software in the world to help with CRM means nothing without proper management and decision-making from humans. Plus, the best programs organize data in a way that humans can interpret readily and use to their advantage. For successful CRM, companies must learn to discern useful information and superfluous data and weed out any duplicate and incomplete records that may give employees inaccurate information about customers.

    What is CRM Customer Relationship Management
    What is Customer Relationship Management? with Video Clip
  • Seven Researchers or Pioneers of Management

    Seven Researchers or Pioneers of Management

    Seven Researchers or Pioneers of Management

    This article throws light upon the seven pioneers who have contributed towards the development of management. The pioneers are: 1. F.W. Taylor 2. H.L. Gantt. 3. Herrington Emerson 4. H.B. Gilbreth 5. Many Parker Follet 6. Henri Fayol 7. George Elton Mayo.

    Pioneer # 1. F.W. Taylor (1856-1915):

    F. W. Taylor was a pioneer in propounding scientific principles of management as a result of his research in various areas of industrial activity.

    He stimulated interest in time study of operations. He has also contributed in the direction of management and therefore, called as “Father of Scientific Management”. He changed the philosophy of management as a whole as he gave the scientific approach to the management.

     

    Definition of Scientific Management:

    Scientific Management implies application of scientific methods and principles to the difficulties and questions that arise during the management of a business.

    In other words scientific management means use of scientific tools, such as definition, analysis, measurement, experimentation and proof in dealing with the problems of Management. Thus scientific Management may be defined as the “Art of knowing exactly what is to be done and the best way of doing it”.

    Taylor tried to work out some system whereby the interests of management and the workers could be same. His focus was on maximization of worker’s productivity.

     

    The various contributions made by Taylor are as follows:

    (i) Development of Science for each Element of an Individual Work:

    Analyse the work scientifically thus replacing rule-of-thumb method. It was required to find out a what is to be done by a particular worker how he is to work and what equipment would be necessary to do it. This information was provided to the worker so as to reduce the wastage of material and time etc. and improve the quality of output/work.

    (ii) Division of Labour or Functional Management:

    Taylor introduced the concept of functional organisation. Under functional management every production worker would have eight bosses; each of them would give orders in his function speciality. This is the principle of specialization. It is essential for efficiency in all spheres of activities as well as in work supervision.

    (iii) Use of Time, Motion and Fatigue Study:

    Efficiency implies finding out the best way of doing a job. The best way of doing a task is that which involves the minimum efforts, time, fatigue and cost.

    Taylor undertook studies on fatigue incurred by the workers and the time essential to complete the job. He suggested that for improving production rate, the work of each person should be planned in advance and the worker should use predetermined method and given time for a definite work.

    (iv) Standardisation of Methods, Machines, Tools and Procedures:

     

    Shovelling work and shovel loads revealed the importance of standardisation of methods and tasks. Standardisation helps hi reducing, time, labour and cost of production. The success of scientific management is related with standardisation of system i.e. techniques of production, machines and tools utilized.

    (v) Scientific Selection and Training of Workers:

    For maintaining production efficiency, it is essential that the workers should be physically and technically sound for the task they are required to perform.

    Taylor suggested that proper care should be taken while selecting work force and due consideration should be given to their education aptitude and work experience etc. Thus scientific procedures need to be devised to select workers best suited to perform specific tasks and then to train them within the industry in order to meet the objectives of the enterprise.

    (vi) Differential Piece Rate System:

    Taylor advocated Differential Piece Rate System of payment which provides an incentive for a worker to achieve high level of optimum output. It distinguishes the more efficient workers from the less efficient workers and motivates to produce more.

    (vii) Economy and Profit:

    Scientific management lays more stress on the economic aspect of production. Maximum output can be achieved only by optimum utilization of resources and elimination of wastage in all forms in order to minimize cost. Cost control and economy will result in higher wages for workers.

    (viii) Cooperation between Labour and Management:

    Mental revolution is the most important feature of scientific management as it would create a congenial and favourable atmosphere/environment leading to harmony and cooperation. The objective of maximum prosperity of employees and employers can be achieved only if there is perfect mutual cooperation between the management and the work force.

    Criticism to Scientific Management:

    (i) It fails to appreciate the social context of workers and higher requirements of workers.

    (ii) Managers feel it unwarranted interference in managerial prerogatives.

    (iii) Taylor’s concept that unions are really not needed was resisted by workers.

    (iv) Fails to recognize the suggestions and ideas of work force.

    Pioneer # 2. Henry L. Gantt:

    Gantt is recognised as one of the-great contributors of the scientific management era. H. L. Gantt was a close associate of Taylor and worked with him. He emphasized the importance of leadership and paid more attention to the human factor involved in production planning and control in business operations.

    He is mainly remembered for his contributions as mentioned below:

    (a) Gantt developed a daily “Balance Sheet Chart” i.e. production control charts known as Gantt charts or Bar charts. These are used to deal with complex activities. In these charts the job or the activities being performed are represented on vertical axis whereas the time elapsed is shown on horizontal axis. This proved to be revolutionary in the area of production planning and control. Gantt charts graphically presented the process of work, by showing the machine operation, quantities completed, man hour performance, deliveries and the work in arrears to facilitate day to day planning of the work.

    (b) He tried to eliminate the hardships of Taylor’s differential piece-rate system and brought out his “task and bonus plan”. Differential piece-rate system was an incentive plan whereby the worker was paid on the basis of his daily output. Gantt’s task and bonus plan was so structured that the worker was paid a guaranteed daily wage whether or not he completed the standard work. But if he completed four hours working in three hours or less, he was paid for four hours. Thus the workers received bonus as a result of the introduction of this system.

    (c) Gantt pleaded for a policy of preaching and teaching of workers and thus stressed the need of training of workers for improving their productivity, it was because of him that management during his period considered training as one of the responsibilities of the management.

    (d) He thought of extending the principles of scientific management to the solution of the problems of an industrial society as a whole. It appealed for harmonious relationship between employees and employers and discouraged the use of power in a arbitrary fashion. He considered that non-financial rewards and good physical environment were essential for achieving higher productivity.

    (e) Gantt emphasized the importance of the concept of service over profit. He developed the concept of industrial responsibility.

    We thus observe that Gantt’s contributions were more in the nature of refinements rather than fundamental concepts and have been more useful than that of Taylor to the development of scientific management.

    Pioneer # 3. H. Emerson Philosophy of Efficiency (1856-1915):

    He concerned himself with the management of the enterprise as a totality and not only with shop management as was done by F.W. Taylor. He popularised scientific management and interpreted the concepts of standard time, standard cost and prevention of wastes of all kinds.

    In 1912 he advocated 12 principles of improving the efficiency which are (1) Ideas (2) Common Sense (3) Competent Counsel (4) Discipline (5) Fair deal (6) Adequate reliable, Immediate and Permanent record (7) Dispatching (8) Standards and schedules (9) Standardized working conditions (10) Standardized Operations (11) Standard working instructions and (12) Reward for efficiency.

    According to him, efficiency and hence productivity does not exist in extreme effort but in elimination of undesirable effort and preventing wastes of all kinds, the elimination of women and child labour in competitive employment; Efficiency of a system means that the right work is done in right manner by right men at right place and in right time.

    He advocated the “Line and staff organization” instead of functional foremanship. As to rewards for efficiency, he suggested the different rates of efficiency besides a guaranteed minimum wage. He was mainly concerned with improving the efficiency of the workers. That is why he is often called the “high priest of efficiency”.

    Pioneer # 4. Frank B. Gilbreth (1868-1924) and Lillian M. Gilbreth:

    Frank Gilbreth and his wife Lillian Gilbreth were contemporary of Taylor, but they worked independently on time and motion study. They made memorable contribution to improvement or working methods and thus to discover one best way of accomplishing a task, with marked efficiency and least expertization.

    He developed a unique technique of last work. Faster speed work however, did not refer to hurrying with the work but economising the time sequence by eliminating unnecessary movements and exhausting motions and methods of accomplishing a task. Whereas Lillian concerned herself with the human aspect of management.

    They considered that the root cause of worker’s dissatisfaction was the lack of management interest in them. They stressed that management should understand their requirements and personality. He and his wife Lillian M. Gilbreth maintained that the human aspect must be considered as a major area of consideration and study in the field of management.

    According to L. M. Gilbreth, the philosophy of motion study says, “Man is considered as the centre of activity and as expressing himself in motions, aided by tools and machines using materials as medium of expression”.

    Thus for orderly organization of complex industrial activities following sequences of operations should be followed:

    (a) Identification of the problem and its objectives.

    (b) Defining the problem objectives.

    (c) Collection of relevant data on the problem.

    (d) Interpretation and analysis of data.

    (e) Consideration of available alternatives.

    (f) Formulation of tentative conclusions about tackling the problem.

    (g) Initiating or starting selected action on the basis of conclusions and verifying the results. (h) Reviewing and evaluating the results and incorporating any corrective action if essential and needed.

    (i) Framing rules to serve as guide to planning and execution.

    Some important contributions of Gilbreth are:

    (i) Development of Motion Study:

    He defined motion study, “as the science of eliminating wastage in all forms resulting from unnecessary, ill directed and inefficient motion”. According to Gilbreth the purpose of motion study was to improve work methods so as to discover or develop one best way of accomplishing a task.

    He identified seventeen (17) on the job motions and called them THERBLIGS (Therbligs) is Gilbreth spelt back words with the transposition of one letter. He maintained that a therblig analysis could be applied to any job. Further, he developed the system to any job. Further, he developed the system of “Flow Process Chart” which makes the study of various processes of activity easier. He also developed micro motion study and SIMO charts.

    (ii) Development of Chronocyclographs:

    He used microchrometer of speed clock and took photographs by cine cameras of the workers and the clock. Thus three observations were taken i.e. what movements occurred, how much time they took and what was the direction of movements. This process was termed as Chronocyclograph.

    (iii) Study of Fatigue:

    Gilbreth carried out studies on fatigue and its elimination. They concluded that fatigue could be considerably reduced by allowing rest periods, spacing the work and lightening the load.

    Pioneer # 5. Mary Parker Follet (1868-1933):

    Mary Parker Follet was a philosopher and political scientist, gave “Law of the situation” in 1919 and made important contributions in the field of functional authority, leadership, coordination, control and concept to the nature of management and of human relationship within industrial groups.

    She analysed the nature of consent on which and democratic group is based through an examination of Psychological factors underlying it.

    According to her, this consent was not static but was a continuous phenomenon. She also proved that conflict can be constructive and could be harnessed to the service of the group.

    The most fruitful way of resolving conflict according to Follet was not through domination and compromise on the plea that domination gives the feeling of loss and surrender to both the sides. She was in favour of integration whereby the parties themselves examined together the new ways of achieving their conflicting desires since, this gives a more stable solution to problem of conflicts.

    According to her, different situations require different types of leadership meaning thereby that leaders are products of their times and the leadership features are a function of the particular or specific situation. The success of a leader does not merely depend on the training he possesses but on the specific situation at a time in which he utilizes his leadership.

    She was of the opinion that for achieving good results various limbs of the organizing body should be well coordinated and closely act together so that they work as a single entity.

    She also advocated for integration of interests of investors, consumers and workers. Mary parker Follet pleaded for the application of scientific methods to the solution of personnel problems.

    Pioneer # 6. Henri Fayol (1841-1925):

    A French industrialist during his long and successful carrier as an Industrial manager Mr. Fayol tried to probe into the bottom of the principles of administration and management Fayal analysed the process of management as he had observed it first-hand.

    He said that managerial activities at the upper levels are more significant than other activities. He was the first to state principles of management and functions of a manager. Many of the talents which are recognised today as principles of management were originally specified by Fayol.

    His conclusion was that all industrial activities could be subdivided in following six groups:

    1. Technical Activities:

    Technical activities involve technical knowhow, production, manufacture and adaptation etc.

    2. Commercial Activities:

    Buying, selling and exchange.

    3. Financial Activities:

    These activities involve search for and optimum use of capital.

    4. Accounting Activities:

    Stock taking balance sheets, and cost sheets to determine financial position of the enterprise.

    5. Security:

    It is related with protection of assets and man power.

    6. Managerial or Administrative Activities:

    Means to follow management functions like planning, organizing, commanding, coordination and controlling (of all the above activities).

    All the above mentioned activities are essential for the successful operation of the enterprise and none of these can be ignored. Though Fayol recognized the importance of first five above activities but the main objective of his study and analysis has been management i.e. to ensure the performance of the work well.

    Pioneer # 7. George Elton Mayo (1880-1949):

    Elton Mayo, an Australian by birth and trained in Psychology is generally recognized as the “Father of Human Relations Approach”. Mayo’s main contribution to management thought was his emphasis on human and social factors in industrial relationships.

    He led the team which conducted the Hawthrone investigation at Alarvard in the United States with the collaboration of the Western Electric Company between 1927 to 1936 and financial support of the Rock Feller Foundation.

    Mayo and his associates studies revealed that an organization is not only a formal arrangement of men and function but also a social system which can be operated successfully by utilizing the principles of psychology and other behaviour sciences.

    Mayo was of the opinion that cause of increase in productivity of the workers is not a single factor of changing working period and conditions but a combination of several other factors such as:

    (i) Less restrictive techniques of supervision

    (ii) Providing autonomy to workers

    (iii) Permitting the formation of small cohesive sub groups of workers

    (iv) Creating conditions which encourage and support the growth and development of these groups

    (v) Cooperation between workers and management

    (vi) Opportunity to be heard and participation in decision making etc.

    Mayo was the first person to advocate for the understanding of workers difficulties in view of growth of science and technology. He desired the management to understand the problems of work force and make efforts to redress them.

    He and his associates pointed out:

    (i) Workers were not simply “Cogs in the machine” i.e. they are not only small part of large organization.

    (ii) The employee morale-both individually and in groups could play significant role in productivity.

    (iii) The work arrangements in addition to meeting the objective requirements of production must at the same time satisfy the employee’s subjective requirements i.e. social satisfaction during work.

    (iv) Higher production could be achieved through good human relations.

    Despite these observations Mayo’s work was a turning point in the development of management thought. How Do You Know Your Company Wants Help From The Outside?

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